The Great Fire of London in 1666 would decimate London, result in its rebuilding, and changes in how buildings and streets were laid out in the city.
The Great Fire of London by anonymous 1675 Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
In 1666, London was a huge city and the capital of Britain. While many of the important homes and buildings were often made of stone, most homes and buildings were made of oak and often used tar to waterproof them. Streets were also narrow with buildings close together making it hard for people and carts to move about on narrow streets. Sanitation was also poor since many people tossed their garbage-and chamber pots-into the street. The modern toilet had not been invented so most bodily waste went into these pots. Add to it horse manure on the streets, and most cities like London had some unpleasant odors especially in summertime.
Firefighting was also different back then. It consisted mainly of local bucket brigades and primitive water pumps on trucks. Since fire was considered a serious threat, people were told to be vigilant and make sure their homes were safe. However, as it turns out, people were not always so careful. On the evening of 1 September 1666 Thomas Farrinor, a baker employed by King Charles II on Pudding Lane, went to bed not making sure that the fire in his oven was properly extinguished. Sometime during the night sparks from the dying embers in the oven ignited firewood lying nearby. Not long after the house would soon become engulfed in flames. Farrinor and his family would flee and survive the fire. Sadly, a maid in the home did not survive as she did not want to jump out of the window.
Sparks from the fire would spread across the street to the Star Inn. It ignited the straw in the stables along with other combustibles and soon the inn was ablaze. The fire would spread from there to Thames Street. Warehouses on the riverfront would soon ignite as well. Full of candles, lamp oil, tallow and coal, the fire would grow larger and begin to spread. The local fire brigade was quickly overwhelmed and had to retreat. The primitive water fighting trucks of the time could barely navigate the streets. Panic ensued as people raced to the Thames with everything they owned. Attempts at using firebreaks by tearing down homes and buildings was tried but the fire overwhelmed them. The fire got so bright it could be seen 30 miles away. Finally on 5 September it started dying out and on the next day it was put out. There was one flare up in the Temple district but when a building containing gunpowder blew up with a powerful bang, the last remnants of the fire was over.
Four-fifths of London was destroyed and remarkably only 16 died. But 100,000 were homeless. The fire burned down the historic St. Paul’s Cathedral along with scores of other churches, buildings, and historic landmarks. King Charles II had a massive task to rebuild the city. He commissioned noted architect Sir Christopher Wren to rebuild St. Paul’s which still stands to this day. New homes and buildings had to be built with bricks and stones; wood was not allowed. And walls had to be thicker and buildings not so close together. Also, streets were widened and the old narrow streets and alleys banned. Access to the river was made easier as well by restricting housing that would block access. The homeless were suggested to go to other cities, towns, and villages outside of London to resettle. Economically it would take many years for London to recover. Most businesses had lost their premises and whatever goods were stored. The commercial district lost a lot of its businesses as they relocated elsewhere. London’s access to shipping routes and that it was the capital kept the city from completely losing its place in the world.
One of the more disturbing aftereffects was the strong anti-Catholic and anti-foreign sentiment that emerged. While most reasoned after studying how the fire began it was an accident, there were many who believed Catholics, Dutch, and French were involved. Opponents of pro- Catholic King Charles II made it an issue. That is why the Monument that was put up in 1670’s had an inscription on it blaming the disaster on the “treachery and malice of the Popish faction.” This was removed in 1830 but at one time practicing Catholicism in England was forbidden and those who refused to recognize the sovereignty of the monarch over the Pope would be executed usually by the horrific method of being hung, drawn, and quartered.
Sadly, the rebuilding scheme did not reshape London as it was originally hoped. They kept pretty much the old layout. Had some of the plans suggested, such as Wren’s, London would have rivaled Paris. Insurance companies were born out of this disaster to help aid those who lost homes or buildings to fire. They began to hire private firemen and to promote safety measures with their clients. This did lead to conflicts with local fire brigades and the private firemen hired by these insurance companies. Ultimately it led a combined fire unit called the London Fire Brigade in 1832, which began the process of permanent fire departments being established to put out fires.
As for the man who started the fire, Thomas Farriner, he would rebuild his shop on Pudding Lane and continue baking until he passed away in 1670. Members of the Worshipful Company of Bakers in 1986 apologized for the fire and put up a plaque on Pudding Lane that one of their own had caused the Great Fire of 1666.
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry Folio 9, verso: September Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (manuscript illustration) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
September is the ninth month, but its name is derived from the Latin word septem meaning seven. On the old Roman calendar which started in March, September was the seventh month. When a new calendar was adopted in 153 BC, September became the ninth month, but its name remained. September is when the academic year starts, a month which transitions from summer to autumn, and harvests begin. The Autumnal Equinox takes place between September 22-24. In the Southern Hemisphere, they are transitioning to Spring.
Labor Day is the major holiday in the United States and, for most, signifies the end of summer vacation. Rosh Hashnanh, the Jewish New Year, takes place in September. The Eastern Orthodox Church, which uses the Julian Calendar, starts its liturgical year in September. September 11 is a special day of remembrance in the United States to remember the victims of the terrorist attacks on the New York World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and the plane that was downed by passengers in Pennsylvania. An old tradition sometimes followed is Michaelmas on September 29, the feast of St. Michael. In Britain crops were harvested and sold during September and annual rent payments were made. Many farmers feasted on goose to celebrate their prosperity and there were large market fairs as well. Some groups in the US still celebrate it and call it “Harvest Home.” The Chinese Moon Festival is also during September and a major celebration for all Chinese. Lanterns, moon cakes, and the exchange of gifts are part of this celebration.
The first full moon of September is called the Harvest Moon, but many native Americans call it Full Corn or Barley Moon. As September transitions to Autumn, seasonal produce begins to appear. For the U.S. it will include apples, artichokes, cranberries, edamame, pears, pumpkins and quinces. Pumpkin spice begins to appear in beverages and baked foods. Some retailers, wanting to cash in early, start selling those items in August.
September in the Forest Larisa Koshkina, publicdomainpibtures.net
On 29 August 1776, after the defeat of American forces at the Battle of Brooklyn Heights in New York, General George Washington ordered the evacuation of his troops across the East River. A remarkable group of men called the Marbleheaders assisted in getting both troops and materials successfully across the river without the British detecting this operation. It has become known as the American Dunkirk of 1776.
U.S. Army-Artillery retreat from Long Island-1776 Creator: Werner Company, 1899 (Akron, Ohio) U.S. Library of Congress, digital id#cph 3g03362 //hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3g03362
New York had a pivotal role in the American colonies and the American Revolution. Its central position made it vital to commerce and communication with the north and south colonies. This made it a key strategic location for both the British and American forces. General George Washington knew the British would target New York City, so he transferred the Continental Army to the city to turn back or slow down the British forces that would come. Fortifications were established in stages. Many of Washington’s troops were green, never been far from home, nor served in the military before. Washington split his forces between Brooklyn and Manhattan. This made reinforcement difficult and left a hole open at the Jamaica Pass the British would exploit.
When the British fleet arrived in June, it brought 20,000 British infantry that disembarked on Staten Island. The warships also could dominate the waterways that cut through New York City. The British sent 10,000 soldiers to Long Island, but Washington did not recombine his forces to counter it. Using a distraction, British General William Howe marched into position and on 27 August launch the attack on the Americans. Fighting raged on Guan Heights in the south and at Brooklyn Heights in the north, with the bloodiest fighting at Battle Pass where hand to hand fighting between Americans and Hessian mercenaries took place. The Americans are forced to withdraw to Brooklyn Heights. A countercharge led by 400 Marylanders would allow their comrades to escape. They would later be remembered as the Maryland 400 for their bravery. When the sun went down, the British had defeated the Americans but held off further attacks until the next day.
General Washington’s options were to surrender or evacuate at this point. While the battle had been lost, the spirit of the revolution was not dimmed. He ordered an evacuation of the troops at night, with British forces not that far away. By all accounts he was calm, authoritative, and in control of the situation. And he was aided in this task by a unique group of individuals called the Marbleheaders. They had worked together as a team fishing in the icy waters of the North Atlantic. So, they understood the weather, tides and time when sailing. Under the leadership of Colonel John Glover, this group using any sailing or rowing vessel they could find, worked to move Washington’s army across the East River to safety. It was no mean feat with British forces all around them. Oars were covered in cloth to prevent making noise in the water, everyone was told to stay quiet and not cough. They used minimal lighting and did not tell the soldiers what was going on until the last minute (this was to prevent the British from finding out).
They moved all the horses, ammunition, and cannon first. Then all the injured and wounded were transported. And then the evacuation began at 10 pm of the troops. Both the tide and winds were in their favor and the water was calm. When the tide changed, it became more difficult to keep the boats from going off-course on the return trips. The Marbleheaders had to really work hard to not loose control of their vessels. Around midnight, the winds shifted making the use of sloops (which used sails rather than oars) possible. Some chaos began to erupt at the embarkation point as soldiers started to rush to the boats. Washington seeing men trying to fight for a place on the boats, threatened to sink the ship unless the men who had pushed others aside got out. This restored the calm and shows how the proper use of leadership in such exacting times can work. The evacuation took all night and was still not done by the morning on 30 August. They had accomplished an impossible task of transporting thousands of men in just nine hours. Dawn though saw Americans still manning the trenches and it spelled doom for them when the British attacked.
Then quite suddenly a thick fog appeared and cloaked the escape. Those escaping in the early morning commented on how smooth the water was. The fog came at exactly the right time and place to remove the remaining American troops to safety across the East River. Washington oversaw the retreat and encouraged his men staying ashore until the last boat was being loaded. At that point he boarded and headed across the river. Thanks to the fog, and the lack of any alarm received by the British, Washington was able to evacuate his entire army leaving the British to find them gone.
While the British defeated Americans at the Battle of Brooklyn Heights (and would hold New York till 1783), the remarkable escape of Washington’s troops would be well regarded both for the incredible evacuation and the leadership of Washington himself. Far from dispiriting the troops or the cause, it became a source of great inspiration, and many believe the hand of God was involved as well. The fame of the Marbleheaders in being able to make the crossing possible would spread. More importantly confidence in George Washington as a capable military leader would result. He made a mistake in dividing his forces, but his remarkable leadership to save his troops would show he was a military leader both the people and his troops could rely on.
Sources
“The Heroes of the American Revolution and Their Descendants?: Whittemore, Henry, 1833- [From Old Catalog]?: Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming?: Internet Archive.” Internet Archive. Last modified 1897. Accessed August 30, 2026. https://archive.org/details/heroesofamerican00whit/page/n9/mode/2up.
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O’Donnell, P. K. (2017b). Washington’s Immortals: The Untold Story of an Elite Regiment Who Changed The Course Of The Revolution. Grove Press. This book does something rare and takes you back to those days with a skill and acumen few writers have. This is not a dry recitation of history, but an exploration of all the factors and people who played a role in the revolution that unfolded. It blends neatly stories about the many individuals, why they choose to revolt, military history of the battle, and very interesting details of a small band of hardy sailors that knew the waters well to give Washington the key to escape from New York. A must read if you want to delve into the people and their motivations for their desire to revolt. And a lot of military details skillfully intertwined so you never get bogged down.
On 27 August 1883 Krakatoa (Krakatau), a volcano on a small island west of Sumatra in Indonesia, would render its final blasts resulting in one the deadliest volcanic eruptions in modern history.
1888 lithograph of the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa. Image published as Plate 1 in The eruption of Krakatoa, and subsequent phenomena. Report of the Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society (London, Trubner & Co., 1888). Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Krakatoa had started erupting in May 1883 and continued erupting off and on for several months. The eruptions at times were so loud they were heard in Jakarta. The eruptions seemed to quiet down for a while but then intensified in later in June resulting in more earthquakes, higher tides, and ships having to be moored with heavy chains to prevent lines snapping. Finally on 26 August it began continually erupting starting in the afternoon. The eruptions were loud and were soon heard all over Java. Ash and hot pumice also began to fall with ship crews having to deal with the hot pumice. A small tsunami was also generated.
On the morning of 27 August, Krakatoa would erupt four times starting at 5:30 am. The third one at 10:02 am was so loud it was heard 3,000 miles away with people thinking a ship offshore was firing cannons. Tsunamis were generated by each of these blasts as well completely sweeping over neighboring islands and coastlines. The final blast at 10:41 am was triggered by a landslide triggering deadly tsunamis as well. The pyroclastic flow from the eruptions crossed the water and went inland causing more death and destruction as well. Over 36,000 died from both the tsunamis and pyroclastic flows.
Photo of 1883 Eruption Unknown author Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons Original Digital Image at Leiden University, Netherlands.
Studies indicate the tsunamis at one point were 120 feet high and completely stripped small islands of both people and vegetation. The pyroclastic flows stretched forty miles inland. More people died from the tsunamis than the pyroclastic flows. One steamship, the Berouw, was carried 2.5 miles inland by the tsunami killing all 28 crewmembers. No attempt was made to remove it and is still visible (though decayed by time and nature) to this day. A lighthouse was destroyed by a massive 600-ton coral block that the tsunami carried with it. Rail lines were bent, and infrastructure was damaged. Whole communities and villages were wiped out as well. The pressure wave created by the third eruption radiated outward at a speed of 675 mph (1,086 km) per hour. The eardrums of sailors on the RMS Norham Castle off Sumatra and about 64 miles away were ruptured. It is now estimated the decibel level of the third eruption was 180 decibels, the loudest sound heard by humanity.
The pressure wave caused windows to shatter and walls to crack in Batavia (now Jakarta). Gasometers there went off scale due to this pressure wave and barographs around the world measured the pressure wave. It circled the world for three days. The final blast, believed to be a lateral explosion, is estimated to be 200 megatons of TNT making it more powerful than the most powerful thermonuclear weapons. The island was nearly destroyed and only a small fragment remained. No major eruptions were noted until 1920 when a new cone appeared and was named Anak Krakatau (Son of Krakatau) and grew quickly. It erupted in 2018 creating a deadly tsunami with 260-foot waves (80 meters). 437 died but over 30,000 injured and displaced. It erupted again in 2020, but no damage resulted.
The eruption of 1883 is regarded as the first scientifically recorded and studied eruption. The study of volcanoes, volcanology, would grow from this event. It was also the first mass reporting of destruction of this type as well. The telegraph, thanks to land and undersea cables, connected the world. News of the disaster quickly spread throughout the world. What used to take weeks or even months to be known was known in days.
This uses a miniseries format to show the events leading up to the eruption and its immediate aftermath. The miniseries is wrapped into commentary by Naked Science making it more informative that the miniseries alone.
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Vesuvius from Portici by Joseph Wright of Derby(1734–1797) Image:Public Domain
It was just around noon on 24 August 79 AD when Mount Vesuvius erupted with a massive 10-mile mushroom cloud sent into the stratosphere. It would become one of the deadliest volcanic eruptions in history. Ash and pumice would rain down over the entire area for twelve hours. Those who fled early on were able to survive what came next. A pyroclastic flow–a fast moving hot gas mixed with volcanic matter–would sweep down from the mountain engulfing the area and killing everyone still there. The eruption was so massive and so powerful that geologists use the term Vesuvian to describe similar deadly eruptions of its kind.
An Accurate View of Ancient Pompeii Before It Was Destroyed by an Eruption in AD 79. Image: Pinterest.
The Bay of Naples was during this period known for its trade and luxury. Foods and other commodities were constantly being shipped in and out allowing the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum to have a high standard of living. The resort city of Stabiae was the place many went to relax in. Mount Vesuvius stood majestically above it all and no one considered the mountain could one day be a problem. There were no records of any eruptions during Roman history. There was an eruption during the Bronze Age that decimated settlements and even more violent eruptions in the far past. During the Roman period and the prior periods when the Greeks and others had settled in the areas, there were no eruptions. Stromboli was known to them and had been actively erupting long before the Romans. Stromboli erupts near its crater and, in most cases, causes no damage. So, Romans had no experience with volcanic eruptions like what happened in 79 AD.
There had been earthquakes that had occurred prior to the eruption. Excavations have determined they were in the process of repairing streets and underground plumbing damaged by them. However, they had no idea the tremors related to the nearby mountain. Indeed, they were caught by surprise when around 1 pm on 23 August when Vesuvius began erupting and spewing forth hot ash and pumice which began to rain down on the area. People close to the volcano began to flee and others, nervous about the situation, did as well. It is estimated about 20,000 people lived in both Pompeii and Herculaneum. As the hours went on, people could see what looked like fires on the mountain causing many more to likely flee. Pyroclastic flows started coming down near the mountain and then later consumed settlements near them. The flows took down everything in their paths and killed everyone that was there. Ash and pumice continued to fall adding more problems for breathing and started damaging structures. Other earthquakes added damage and there was a minor tsunami in the Bay of Naples.
It was on the second day that Vesuvius would erupt so massively that it would give the name to such violent eruptions. The massive 10-mile mushroom cloud released 1,000 times more than the nuclear devices used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The massive amounts of ash and pumice ejected was about 1.5 million tons per second. The pyroclastic flows it generated on the second day swept through Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, and Stabiae killing anyone who had not fled with the ash and pumice burying them completely. The only surviving account as to what happened comes from the writings of Pliny the Younger who witnessed the eruption while staying west across the Bay of Naples. His uncle, Pliny the Elder, sailed over to Stabiae to find out what was going on. They had planned to stay the night, but the ash and pumice had made the houses unstable and decided to leave. Unfortunately, a plume of toxic gases came over the area and they had to flee. Pliny though was unable to escape and would die. They would find his body three days later exactly where he fell with no other injuries. Pliny the Younger would compile survivor accounts and his own observations. He provided them to Tacitus, who included it in his writings.
The Last Day of Pompeii by Karl Bryullov (1799–1852) Google Art Project Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
The reaction of the Roman people was utter disbelief. No one had any inkling that Mount Vesuvius was deadly. And at least 20,000 people were believed dead. Many wealthy Romans and senators had residences there. It was a major loss for the Romans. Rome declared a mourning period, though its exact length is unknown but perhaps up to a year. Depictions from that time show Romans wearing dark robes to signify the mourning. The new Emperor Titus sent two consuls to Pompeii the set up any assistance that was needed. He ordered the treasury to aid the Campania region and rebuild Pompeii. Property was given to survivors whose relatives owned them prior to their deaths. And the people of Pompeii would be free from taxes for the next five years. However, due to the totality of the destruction, most gathered what possessions they could access and resettled elsewhere. The amount of ash that covered the cities was substantial, so they were abandoned. Thieves burrowed in the ash to locate valuables. And the city was used as a quarry with all the ash. Additionally marble and stone blocks were removed for other building projects along with other items.
“The Civita hill, which was covered in eruptive material, from which parts of the upper floors of buildings emerged, became an uninhabited site, though one where man returned to cultivate, and use the area as a burial ground. In certain cases, the structures which emerged were re-used for other purposes, such as in the case of the bakery which was constructed in a vaulted room which faces onto the southern crag of the plain, or the structures which were built over the Women’s Forum Baths. Along the restored road outside the city, several buried structures were also unearthed and repurposed. The most significant case is that of the Moregine baths, which were discovered during the construction of the Naples-Salerno motorway on the southern outskirts of modern Pompei: the building had been partly reused, with the laying of a clay slab floor over the ash layer from the eruption of AD 79, until another eruption buried it, causing the permanent abandonment of the complex.”(Pompeii After the Eruption)
Significant excavations beginning in 1927 have revealed much of what life must have been like before the destruction. More somber were the finding of some 2,000 bodies. Volcanic ash hardened and preserved the outlines of their bodies. Once the flesh had gone, the outline remained but filled in with plaster revealed those final moments of their lives. And it was not pleasant at all.
Pompeii, with Vesuvius towering above.(2010) Author: Qfl247 (Wikimedia Commons)
Vesuvius is still an active volcano. Its last major eruption was in March 1944 and destroyed several small villages with lava. The eruption was seen from Naples and damaged (thanks to hot ash and other things) or destroyed up to 88 B-25 medium bombers based in Terzigno, Italy. The volcano is kept under constant watch to prevent anything on the scale of the eruption of 79 AD to the people who live under its shadow.
Odyssey – Ancient History Documentaries. “What Was Normal Life Like in Pompeii Before the Eruption? | Lost Lives of Pompeii.” Video. YouTube, May 29, 2024. Accessed August 24, 2026. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_xECnMywBHY.
Real History. “Vesuvius Reconstructed: How the Eruption Annihilated Pompeii | the Riddle of Pompeii | Real History.” Video. YouTube, July 20, 2022. Accessed August 24, 2026. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e-fInA8tK9U.
On 23 August 1939 it was announced that Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union had signed a nonaggression treaty. The announcement was a complete surprise since Hitler had both in his writings and public speaking had denounced Communism and the Soviet Union. So why did this happen and what were its effects? Let’s find out.
Map of Europe and Western Asia in 1923 after World War I. Image via Wikimedia Commons
Both Germany and Russia had suffered in World War I. Germany was defeated by the Allies, lost its monarchy and colonial territories, and was ordered to pay huge reparations per the Versailles Treaty. Russia had gotten into the war to protect Serbia but was ill-equipped for a major war due to its limited resources and industrial capability. It suffered humiliating defeats during the war and its people suffered with reduced goods and services. This fed to unrest which led to Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate and allow a more democratic government to take over. Alas, that did not last as it continued in the war despite its unpopularity. This allowed the Communists, led by Lenin (who had been sent back to the country by Germany to foment chaos) to seize power and overturn the entire social and political structure of the country. In Germany, after a decade of vacillating leadership and discontent over inflation and Germany’s loss of status in the world, Adolf Hitler would lead the Nazi Party to victory after he was given the chancellorship in 1933. Both Germany and Russia (now called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or just Soviet Union), were led by authoritarian governments that ruled with an iron fist.
The Soviet Union in its early days sought a promised world-wide revolution that never happened, causing its leader Lenin and later Stalin to realize that building up the country first was needed before a worldwide revolution. Hitler and the Nazi’s had a different view as they wanted to expand their country and restore pride in Germany. A new Germany was being formed with a clear ideology; they were the people that would lead to change Europe and the World. By 1939, Germany was making its moves in Europe by invading Czechoslovakia. In 1938, they demanded and got a piece of Czechoslovakia when Britain and France, desperate to avoid war, forced Czechoslovakia to accept the deal breaking a treaty they had signed to defend it. Germany also annexed Austria that year as well uniting both countries. The invasion of Czechoslovakia told Britain and France that Hitler would not honor his agreements.
On the Russian side, Stalin had instituted programs to industrialize the country, but his brutal dictatorship had resulted in people being denounced, tried, and either imprisoned for years or executed. A climate of fear existed and not knowing whether someone had denounced you in secret made you wonder if you would come home that night. The Great Purge of 1936-1938 saw its officer corps depleted. The German Gestapo, feeding on Stalin’s paranoia, used the situation to use create documents that implicated many in the officer corps but also in government as well. The era became known for its show trials where the accused would be brought in, tried of a crime they didn’t commit, and faced imprisonment or death depending on the severity of the charge. Those who had become important members of government or close to Stalin that had been purged would be removed from the public record as well. Photos were retouched to show they were no longer walking, standing, or near Stalin or other people.
Stalin looked at expanding the Soviet Union by stealth or force into Europe. He hoped the war between the European nations would weaken them so he could achieve his aims. Poland was, like Czechoslovakia a means to an end for both powers. Germany’s racial theory held the Polish people were, like the Jews, to be eliminated. For all the bad reasons, both Hitler and Stalin would come to terms and agree to a treaty that divided Poland into two spheres. Secret protocols to the pact indicated the demarcation lines and other things as well. The countries of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland were secretly divided up as well giving both Germany and the Soviet Union access to raw materials. This allowed Hitler to invade Poland in September. Russia would move to claim its share of Poland, which the German military was not quite happy about since in some areas they had to withdraw back to the lines agreed to in the secret protocols.
“Nothing more unbelievable could be imagined. Astonishment and skepticism turned quickly to consternation and alarm”. (Gunther, John (1940). Inside Europe. New York: Harper & Brothers.)
Stalin and Ribbentrop shaking hands over the newly signed pact between Germany and Soviet Union. August 23,1939 Source: German Federal Archive
The news of the agreement, popularly called the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, stunned the world. No one expected that Hitler would make a deal with Stalin. There had been some leaks suggesting it, but no one thought it credible that this would occur. The British and French had been in negotiations with the Soviets for months and were blindsided. Soviet propaganda heralded the agreement while others questioned secret protocols that were signed. Italy and the U.S. were given some limited information about them, but the full details were not disclosed. Soviet propaganda downplayed the previous attacks on Germany and Molotov himself made it clear they harbored no ill will. Nazi propaganda also had to do an about face as well. The Nazi’s had shut down the German Communist Party, imprisoned its leaders, and shut down its press. And they had nothing good to say about the Soviet Union either. Now they had to say everything was good with the hated Communist state.
Meanwhile the Baltic States began to worry how the rumored secret protocols would soon impact them. British and French attempts to meet with the Soviet negotiator over the agreement were rebuffed. Hitler said that with the treaty in place Britain should recognize Germany’s claims over Poland since it changed the situation from that of World War I. Instead, and to the German leader’s surprise, Britain announced a defense pact with Poland on 25 August 1939. Needless to say, Poland now realized it was being divided up by the two powers and war was coming.
How Central Europe would be divided up according the agreement. And what actually happened before Germany broke the treaty and attacked the Soviet Union. Author: Peter Hanula via Wikimedia Commons
The British and French governments had reached their end with Hitler; they no longer trusted him. In both countries the appeasement supporters diminished as reality set in that war was most certainly coming now with Germany. Neville Chamberlain, the chief supporter of the Munich Agreement a year before to avoid war, now realized his failure. He made it clear to Germany it would stand by Britain’s agreement to defend Poland. Hitler considered Chamberlain a fool and ordered the military to invade Poland as planned. The only question the Germans really had was whether those powers would do anything while they were attacking Poland. Both the British and French declared war on Germany when it invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 but took no immediate military action. It was a mistake that would prove costly for both countries later.
Aftermath
Stalin gambled that Hitler would focus on Europe and not on Russia. His goal was to build up the Soviet Union for war or to move in when his forces had subverted the country they wanted to take. Like many (including the German military high command) a two-front war was to be avoided. All of that went out of the window when Hitler decided he would invade Russia in 1941 under Operation Barbarossa. The goal of the operation was to remove and execute the leadership of Russia, take control of Russia, and make it a place for German resettlement. Stalin was not prepared for war and had discounted warnings Germany was about to invade as an attempt to get Russia to scuttle the treaty. Germany got the initial success and took territory, easily defeating the military forces it encountered. However, they never took Moscow despite being twenty miles from it. And as time went on, faced more stiffer resistance and a military helped by American military equipment sent to help Russia defeat Hitler.
A vicious war broke out between the German and Russian forces creating now an Eastern Front that began to demand more resources than initially thought needed. The Soviet Union was getting supplies from the Allies using the dangerous North Atlantic to Murmansk route. And when the Allies landed in Europe in June 1944, this caused even more strain already on the limited resources Germany had. The Soviet troops started pushing back and ultimately forced Germany into retreat and ultimately to Berlin in 1945 where Hitler would commit suicide rather than be captured.
Stalin did achieve his war aims in the end. Now with their troops in Poland and throughout Central Europe in countries they had liberated from Nazi rule, they would undermine the return of its former governments and subvert their political structure to ensure Communists would take charge. Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia all came to be controlled by the Soviet Union through governments that were installed and supported by them. It gave them access to sources of raw materials they had not had before and created a buffer around Russia. For people that had survived living under the yoke of Nazi controlled governments, it was simply swapping out one ideology for another with the same type of tyranny running things. Yugoslavia under Tito did break away from Moscow (he was fiercely independent but Communist) but that was about it.
The Iron Curtain, in black. Countries to the East of it are noted in Red and Warsaw Pact countries. NATO countries are blue, neutral states gray. Green depicts Yugoslavia which broke away from Moscow in 1948. Albania also had its own split starting in 1961 and in 1968 withdrew from the Pact but remained Communist. While a small part of Austria was occupied by the Soviet Union from 1945-1955, it did not join the Warsaw Pact and declared its neutrality. The small black dot in East Germany indicates West Berlin which was circled with the infamous Berlin Wall starting in 1961. Image: Sémhur via Wikimedia Commons
Until the fall of Communism began in 1991, these countries would remain either directly or indirectly controlled by Moscow through their governments. Some countries such as Czechoslovakia would break up (Czech Republic and Slovakia) after Communism ended. Yugoslavia would also break up as well into Bosnia, Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Romania had the most violent uprising (Poland had strikes that forced out the Communists) that ended with its leader being executed in the end. East Germany would be unified with West Germany ending the separation that had begun in 1945.
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HMS Tiger 1900 Circa 1900-1908 Image used in postcard by Pictorial Post Card Co. Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Divers recently uncovered the remains of a Royal Navy warship off the Isle of Wight — 118 years after it went down. The ship, HMS Tiger, sank in 1908 after colliding with another Royal Navy warship, the 10,000-ton HMS Berwick, news agency SWNS reported. More than half of HMS Tiger’s 57 crew members were killed in the sinking. The wreck remained undiscovered until Aug. 10, when the ProjectXplore dive group announced its discovery. Images show divers exploring the twisted and rusting remains of HMS Tiger on the seabed over a century after it sank. A wreath was also laid on the wreck in memory of those who died.
The Titanic ride at Graveley Fruit Farm near Hitchin, Hertfordshire, sees the replica ship lift at one end to slide customers downwards, resembling the sinking of the ocean liner. Manager Will Campbell-Gray said: “We’re keeping the memory of Titanic alive and we’re not making fun of the dead at all.” He added the ride was renamed The Big Tipper last year after complaints were made online, but the original name was restored after his wife received threats demanding it was changed back.
Titanic at the docks of Southampton, 10 April 1912 Unknown Author Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Combining historical accuracy, guided storytelling, and room-scale VR technology, this 35-minute experience goes far beyond movie screens and museum glass—placing you directly inside the story of the RMS Titanic.
For tickets, hours of operation, and other information, click here.
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MV Wilhelm Gustloff, Danzig, 1939 Source: German Federal Archives via Wikimedia Commons
The deadliest maritime disaster of all time wasn’t the sinking of the Titanic in 1912 or the Lusitania in 1915. That unfortunate distinction belongs to a more recent, but far less famous, catastrophe: the torpedoing of the German ocean liner Wilhelm Gustloff in 1945. While no one will ever know the exact death toll, historians estimate that as many as 9,000 men, women and children died aboard the Wilhelm Gustloff, compared with about 1,500 aboard the Titanic and 1,200 aboard the Lusitania.
Photo of the SS Andrea Doria half submerged after colliding with the Swedish ship Stockholm off the coast of Nantucket Island, Massachusetts in July 1956. Photo: Harry A. Trask (1928–2002) Winner of Pulitzer Prize in 1957 Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
The sinking of the Titanic has entered folklore to such an extent that practically every other maritime disaster is measured against it. Equally, the dreadful loss of life on that bleak April night in 1912 – and the sequence of unfortunate events that precipitated it – was so awful that, on the face of it, nothing could ever really bear legitimate comparison. And yet, today marks the 70th anniversary of what has been referred to as “the Titanic of the 1950s” – a description that is far from inaccurate. True, the events of July 26 1956 did not come at a cost of 1,496 people. Nor have they been the subject of a major Hollywood movie. But in other ways – a luxury liner heading for New York; a sudden but avoidable collision; damage that, from the first moment, could only have one result; a manic race to save those in peril; a wreck site in the North Atlantic – there were significant similarities.
Leadbeater, Chris. “The Tragic Sinking of the ‘Titanic of the 1950s’ the Wrecking of Italian Liner SS Andrea Doria, 70 Years Ago on Sunday, Bore Eerie Similarities to the Most Infamous Maritime Disaster Ever.” The Telegraph. Last modified July 26, 2026. Accessed August 20, 2026. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/ss-andrea-doria-sinking-tragedy/.
Suggested Titanic Reading
[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]
Lord, Walter, A NIGHT TO REMEMBER, Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York, New York, 1955. Multiple revisions and reprints, notably Illustrated editions (1976,1977,1978 etc.)
Lord, Walter, THE NIGHT LIVES ON, Willian Morrow and Company, New York, New York, 1986 (First Edition)
Rare Cherub statue makes its Las Vegas debut at Titanic: The Artifact Exhibition inside Luxor Hotel and Casino (PRNewsFoto/Premier Exhibitions, Inc.)
…. the Atlanta-based R.M.S. Titanic Inc. — made plans to auction off 100 of the 5,500 artifacts it has collected. It went to court on Thursday to defend the proposed sale. In U.S. District Court in Norfolk, Va., the company argued before Judge Rebecca Beach Smith that she has no jurisdiction over the 100 disputed artifacts because they were recovered in 1987 and were awarded to the company by a French court.
Sometimes forgotten is the fact that the expedition in 1985 was a joint operation between Woods Hole Oceanographic and IFREMER (Institut Français de Recherche pour l’Exploitation de la Mer). As such, a small number of these were handled by a French maritime court. The argument RMS Titanic Inc is making is that those specific artifacts are thus under the control of a French court thus not covered by the U.S. court salvage award. The US and other parties disagree. Whatever the judge’s decision, it will likely be appealed. Presumably whatever judgment was made in that French court was submitted.
The company is claiming that they are in dire financial straits and need of cash infusion. And the financials do bear this out. The judge is wondering why with some wealthy backers how that can be. Wealthy backers are one thing but making a profit is another and they are not doing that now. It is quite possible, should the judge decide against the company, that they go into bankruptcy. That moves it out of one federal court into another to handle creditor claims and what to do with the assets (in this case the artifacts). The court ruled a year?s ago that it could be only sold as a collection making it nearly too expensive for most publicly funded institutions to purchase on their own leaving only the high wealth in Dubai and associated states along with China as potential buyer. Perhaps that chap in Australia who keeps saying Titanic II is coming might be interested.
In other news
Titanic Slide Considered Tacky Image: Daily Mail
Despite having been an attraction at the park for multiple years, this summer a number of parents became enraged at the theming of the slides, branding it ‘disrespectful’. Furious parents compared the Titanic theming to having a ‘Twin Towers ride’, despite the tragedy taking place more than 110 years ago. Initially wishing to calm the critics, farm manager Will offered to change the name of the popular ride. However, he was then encouraged by other guests to hold firm and chose not to change it at the behest of a small handful of people. He pointed out that there are no living survivors of the tragedy and very few children of survivors and referred to the Titanic immersive exhibition, which opened in London last year.
A display honoring the life of Oscar Scott Woody opened Thursday at “Titanic: The Exhibition.” Woody, a Person County native, was one of five postal clerks aboard the ship. They were transporting 7 million pieces of mail from Europe to the U.S. “They perished because they had a duty to preserve the mail,” said Carrie Currie, the executive director of the Person County Museum of History. “They were trying so desperately to get the mail up to the upper deck so it could be loaded onto lifeboats.” The Person County Museum of History temporarily donated several pieces to the exhibit, including Woody’s orders to travel on the Titanic as well as replicas of items he had with him when his body was found.
Joseph Laroche (seated right), with his family; wife, Juliette (centre), elder daughter, Simonne (left) and younger daughter, Louise (centre, seated).1911 Source:Wikipedia
Laroche ultimately decided to return to his native Haiti with his family. His connection to the country was especially significant: his uncle was Cincinnatus Leconte, who served as president of Haiti, according to Kellie Carter Jackson, a Knafel Assistant Professor of the Humanities in the Department of Africana Studies at Wellesley College. Laroche and his wife were expecting their third child, making the prospect of secure employment especially important. According to Jackson, his uncle had promised to secure him a position as “a mathematician and pay him 200 a month, which was more than a modest salary at the time” once he returned home to Haiti, Jackson noted.
Suggested Titanic Reading
[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]
Lord, Walter, A NIGHT TO REMEMBER, Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York, New York, 1955. Multiple revisions and reprints, notably Illustrated editions (1976,1977,1978 etc.)
Lord, Walter, THE NIGHT LIVES ON, Willian Morrow and Company, New York, New York, 1986 (First Edition)
Allied Occupation sectors in Berlin (1945-1990). Image: Paasikivi via Wikimedia Commons
After World War II, Berlin was divided into four Allied occupation zones: American, British, French and Soviet. Differences emerged as to the future of Germany resulting in the creation of two Germanys and Berlin being split in two. The Americans, British, and French united their sectors to create the Federal Republic of Germany and half of Berlin in 1948. The Soviet backed German Democratic Republic was the other and Berlin, except for that half that was part of West Germany, was inside East Germany.
The Soviet Union decided to blockade West Berlin to force the Allied powers to leave. U.S. President Harry Truman, along with Britain, organized a massive airlift to help West Berlin be stocked with food and fuel. Ultimately the Soviets backed down in May 1949 and life resumed with West Berlin nestled within a country hostile to it. Crossing between the two parts was relatively easy and families were often split into both sectors. West Berlin became a gateway for people desiring to leave the Communist dominated central and eastern Europe. However, those running East Germany started losing significant portions of society from intellectuals to skilled laborers. With approval from Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev (who had suggested the wall), the East German government decided to close off access to West Berlin.
Berlin: Sicherung der Staatsgrenze am 13.8.1961 – Zum Schutz der Grenze eingesetzte Genossen der Kampfgruppen auf der Westseite des Brandenburger Tores. (Translation “Berlin: Securing the state border on 13.8.1961 – Comrades of the combat groups deployed to protect the border on the west side of the Brandenburg Gate.”) Photo: Peter Heinz Junge Source: German Federal Archives via Wikimedia Commons
Beginning on the evening of 12 August 1961, East German soldiers started placing 30 miles of barbed wire through Berlin reducing checkpoints to cross into East Berlin. Western governments protested but did nothing to stop it. On 15 April 1961 concrete replaced barbed wire effectively creating a permanent wall between the two sectors. As the wall was being erected, many moved frantically to get out before it was completed. Buildings that faced into West Berlin were used as escape routes with people waiting to help them escape. Whole neighborhoods that were once easily accessed were now blocked. The effect was startling with roads blocked, mass transit on both sides no longer able to move back and forth, and those who worked in West Berlin but lived in East Berlin were cut off from their jobs. Families that lived in both sectors were now cut off. Early on they could wave to their family at certain points, but the East Germans put a stop to it.
The walls would go up to 15 feet high in some places. It followed the border between the two sectors but at some points there was some distance between the legal boundaries. East German guards were given kill orders on anyone trying to flee into West Berlin. In early days it was easier to escape but that would change over time. Buildings that faced into West Berlin were sealed to prevent anyone from escaping from windows, fire escapes, or by lowering themselves down to the ground. Observation towers were erected with constant patrols. In some areas they created a no-man’s land which contained numerous obstacles, mines, gravel to quickly see footprints, and offered a clear field of fire from guards in towers. These death strips, created by tearing down buildings on their side, were a grim feature of the wall. Between the manned guard towers, foot patrols, assorted obstacles such as mines and other deadly tools, it made escape nearly impossible.
The move was not unexpected by many in Washington D.C. or other capitals. It had been assumed for a while something like this might happen. West Berlin mayor Willy Brandt was furious at the lack of a strong response from the United States. The prevailing view in some circles was that this meant neither the East Germans nor the Soviet Union was going to invade Berlin. While no one was happy about it being there, trying to compel East Germany to take it down meant a showdown they did not want to escalate to a major international crisis. The decision was made not to risk an international crisis but use it as a symbol against Communism and what Moscow stood for. It fit neatly into what Winston Churchill called in his famous Sinews of Freedom (‘Iron Curtain’) speech in 1946:
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in many cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow. Athens alone-Greece with its immortal glories-is free to decide its future at an election under British, American and French observation. The Russian-dominated Polish Government has been encouraged to make enormous and wrongful inroads upon Germany, and mass expulsions of millions of Germans on a scale grievous and undreamed-of are now taking place. The Communist parties, which were very small in all these Eastern States of Europe, have been raised to pre-eminence and power far beyond their numbers and are seeking everywhere to obtain totalitarian control. Police governments are prevailing in nearly every case, and so far, except in Czechoslovakia, there is no true democracy.[1]
President Kennedy denounced the wall and appointed retired general Lucious Clay as special advisor with ambassadorial rank to West Berlin. He was well known and liked in West Germany as he had been the Military Governor of the US Zone of Occupation during the Berlin Blockade. He took the initial steps in the famous Berlin Airlift, so West Berliners were very happy with this choice. And in this appointment Kennedy sent a clear message that he would not back down in supporting West Berlin. Both Clay and Vice President Lyndon Johnson went to West Berlin on Saturday 19 August 1961 and were greeted with great enthusiasm at Tempelhof Airport. On Sunday American troops in West Germany marched through East Germany to arrive in West Berlin. This was allowed by treaty, so neither the East Germans nor the Soviets could stop it. The column of 1,500 soldiers (broken down into five march units) with 491 vehicles marched in full battle gear and stopped at the East German checkpoint at Marienborn where the guards head counted them. The column was 99 miles long and covered 110 miles to reach West Berlin. It was noticed that East German military and police watched the march from the trees on the autobahn. They arrived around noon in West Berlin with Clay and Johnson in front. Over the years troops would continue to be rotated in and out of West Berlin to show East Germany and the Soviets their support.
The German Democratic Republic which had erected the wall claimed it was meant to protect itself from fascist aggression (antifaschistischer Schutzwall). They also claimed that West Germans were buying items that were state subsidized for its citizens. It was noted, however, that the barrier was to keep East Germans and others from going into West Berlin. West Berliners and others could enter and leave East Berlin through either the famous Checkpoint Charlie or a few others open for such purposes. While some claim that the wall was a success in stemming the migration out (and possibly improved their economy), it became a symbol of Communist oppression. Khrushchev thought the U.S. would not oppose it since Kennedy himself had said early in 1961 he would do nothing to stop it. Kennedy regretted those words, said at the Vienna Summit, to a reporter with the New York Times.
Checkpoint Charlie was on Friedrichstrasse, near Kochstrasse. It was the only crossing between West Berlin and East Berlin that could be used by Americans and other foreigners, and by members of the Allied Forces. The other six checkpoints were for residents of West Berlin or West Germany. Photo: Roger Wollstadt via Wikimedia Commons
For the people of West Berlin, it was a daily fact of life their city was divided. And they could never forget it either. As East Germany solidified the wall, over 5,000 would escape to safety. Most though were either killed or captured. Those captured were often tortured and executed while others rotted in jails. The ruthless East German Ministry for State Security (Stasi), modeled on the Soviet KGB, hunted down suspected collaborators and those assisting people attempting to flee East Germany using a large army of civilian informants. With its own paramilitary force, named for the founder of the forerunner of the KGB, it had a well-earned reputation for tracking down and eliminating those who opposed East Germany.
East Berlin Death Strip as seen from Axel Springer Building, 1984 Photo by George Garrigues Image credit: GeorgeLouis via Wikimedia Commons
By the late 1980’s, the Soviet Union was beginning to collapse and many of its client states were feeling the pressure of those they oppressed. On 12 June 1987 a call would be made to bring down the wall. This would start a movement that would galvanize people all over Germany and the West. The words were simple and done by President Ronald Reagan in West Berlin on the 75th anniversary of the city. He gave the speech 100 yards away from that wall and not far from the Brandenburg Gate.
“Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall.”
The crowd was electrified and it was unexpected. Most presidents said nothing about taking it down being advised it was unwise by the State Department. Reagan though saw this as the most visible sign of Communist oppression, and it should come down. Of course, the Soviets dismissed it as did some European leaders thinking it was too provocative. It lit a fire to challenge Communist leaders in East Germany and elsewhere. Soon demonstrations were taking place with large masses of people making it hard for the Communist leaders to so easily put it down as a few agitators. And it worked to bring down this hated wall. On 9 November 1989 East Germany announced that people in East and West Berlin could cross freely. As word spread, East Germans flocked to the gates but the guards, not yet having received word, did not know what to do. There was confusion and miscommunications, and no one wanted to order any lethal force be done. Finally, the commander of the Bornholmer Strasse border crossing opened the border with little or no identity checking. Many in West Berlin raced to the border hoping to see friends and family cross. It became known as the Night the Berlin Wall Fell. The next day Germans on both sides would begin to dismantle it. And this event would compel other Communist nations that had closed borders with the West to open their gates too. Communism was waning and would soon collapse in East Germany and elsewhere. Ultimately East Germany would dissolve and merge with the Federal Republic of Germany.
Today only historic signs, photos, and tour guides will point out where the infamous wall once stood. You can see the differences in some areas that have the old Soviet style buildings right next to the modern areas that were once part of West Berlin. Rick Steves in his travel show about Berlin shows how much it has changed since those terrible days. The wall put up to keep people from moving from East Germany to the freedom of the west itself is now a memory, with people selling parts of the wall now to collectors.
Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation & Institute. “‘Tear Down This Wall’ Berlin Wall Speech – President Reagan’s Address at the Brandenburg Gate.” Video. YouTube, April 15, 2009. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5MDFX-dNtsM.
Enormous gantry cranes in the yards of Harland & Wolff, Belfast 2018. Image Credit: August Schwerdfeger via Wikimedia Commons
For the first time in more than 20 years, the two yellow gantry cranes are being pressed back into regular service as Harland & Wolff – the historic firm that built the ill-fated Titanic – gets back into the warship business. “We haven’t used Goliath for years,” says Peter Rusk, programme manager, as he explains how the yard is being modernised, from dry dock repairs to massive pieces of new equipment. “It needs this investment, needs this overhaul,” Rusk adds. “And Samson and Goliath, they’re iconic for Belfast.”
A letter written by a second-class passenger aboard the RMS Titanic just days before the ship sank has sold for a record £60,000 ($81,000) at a UK auction. The handwritten letter was written by Henry Price Hodges on April 10, 1912, the day the Titanic left Southampton on its maiden voyage. It was sold on Sunday by auction house Henry Aldridge and Son in Devizes, Wiltshire, well above its estimated price of up to £35,000 ($47,000).
In 2025, UCL’s Professor Jeom-Kee Paik led a supercomputer-based finite element/CFD reconstruction of Titanic’s sinking, commissioned for the BBC/National Geographic film Titanic: The Digital Resurrection. Using blueprints, wreck evidence, and 1912 inquiry testimony, the team modelled the collision, flooding, and hull-girder failure that split the ship apart at ~158 minutes, still afloat. A counterfactual test found Titanic likely would have survived a bow-first head-on hit, matching Edward Wilding’s testimony. Since parameters were tuned to the known timeline, results are a plausible scenario, not proof.
UCL Mechanical Engineering. “The Digital Reconstruction and Resurrection of the RMS Titanic Sinking.” Video. YouTube, January 12, 2026. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xkv2z6swbRo.
Suggested Titanic Reading
[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]
Lord, Walter, A NIGHT TO REMEMBER, Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York, New York, 1955. Multiple revisions and reprints, notably Illustrated editions (1976,1977,1978 etc.)
Lord, Walter, THE NIGHT LIVES ON, Willian Morrow and Company, New York, New York, 1986 (First Edition)
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