The signing of the Pact of Steel on 22 May 1939 in Berlin Photographer unknown Public Domain/WIkimedia Commons
On 22 May 1939, Germany and Italy signed the Pact of Friendship and Alliance that became known later as the Pact of Steel. This began the formal military and political alliance between the two countries. Initially Japan was to be part of the agreement but there was disagreement on the focus of the pact. Germany and Italy wanted it aimed at the British Empire and France, while Japan wanted the Soviet Union to be the focus. The agreement was signed without Japan but would later join in September 1940.
The agreement brought together two countries that opposed each other in World War I. It also required each country to come to the aid of the other if it were in armed conflict with another nation. Neither party could make peace without the agreement of the other. One of the assumptions of the agreement was that war would start in three years at the latest. Italy needed the time to get its war production into high gear. The agreement was for ten years but there was some concern within the Italian government the agreement would suppress Italian autonomy. The agreement was still signed despite these objections, which also came from Mussolini’s son-in-law, Galeazzo Ciano, who was the Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Hitler, however, would soon declare his intentions of invading Poland. Mussolini was not happy he was not consulted on this, nor about the Molotov-Ribbentrop Agreement. Italian forces did not commit fully to war until June 1940 when German forces had defeated British and French forces with lightning speed. Italy seized Nice as its prize. Other countries it tried to invade proved more difficult. Greek partisans brought the Italian force to a halt. Germany would intervene to help there and in Yugoslavia where Italian troops also pushed back by partisans. A disastrous attack on British Egypt from Italian Libya required German assistance as well. The economic consequences of the war were bad for most Italians generating widespread resentment that would lead one day to Mussolini’s fall from power in 1943.
Nations of the Pact of Friendship and Alliance (Pact of Steel)
Benito Mussolini, who once ruled Italy and created Fascism, was executed by Italian partisans while attempting to flee Italy.
Benito Mussolini started out as Communist, became dissatisfied with it, and conceived a new ideology called Fascism that fused elements of Communism with Nationalism. Italy after World War I was economically suffering. It had supported the Allies and was promised territory but got nothing. Mostly agrarian based with only a few centers of large industry, Italy was considered backward by European standards. Mussolini sought to change this by making people believe in Italy again. Being an ardent Communist and editing one of Italy’s prominent Communist newspapers, he originally believed in its principles but World War I disillusioned him. He crafted a new ideology, Fascism, that incorporated elements of both Communism and Nationalism, that would bring about a better nation.
His movement garnered many supporters eager to make Italy a better and stronger nation. After King Emmanuel III dissolved parliament in 1921, Mussolini used this to demand more power. His party had gained seats and with uniformed members out on the streets, highly visible as well. They gained power in cities, and the Black Shirts went after Communists and Socialists destroying their offices. In 1922, King Emmanuel was faced with major problems of civil unrest. Calling out the army did little good and the Fascists controlled many municipalities. A march on Rome brought Mussolini and thousands to Rome demanding he be put into power. To avoid more unrest, King Emmanuel appointed him as Prime Minister and would rule Italy from 1923-1943.
Fascism, like Communism, disdained democracy as weak and governed as a one-party state where dissent was limited. Dissidents were imprisoned or executed depending on the severity of their actions. All media–print, radio, and movies–had to reflect the views of the government. Journalists had to belong to a national organization that would bound them to support Mussolini. Every aspect of life in Italy came under its control as Mussolini envisioned it would. The Catholic Boy Scouts were dissolved and replaced by a Fascist one called Opera Nazionale Balilla and all young boys were encouraged to join but it became mandatory in 1937. Much of what the Fascists did in Italy would become the model for Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party in Germany. Though Mussolini at first disdained Hitler, they eventually became friends. Both believed that Fascism was on the march and would replace the old order of Europe. The Spanish Civil War of 1936 saw both Hitler and Mussolini support General Francisco Franco against the Communist inspired government backed by Moscow.
Mussolini seized Ethiopia in 1935 sparking world-wide outrage over the use of mustard gas. Hitler backed him and both countries would exit the League of Nations in 1937. With the signing of the Pact of Steel in 1939, Mussolini had tied Italy to Germany’s war aims. Italy faced problems building up its military. It sorely lacked the industrial capability to build its own munitions, ships, and other necessities. Because of boycotts and refusals to sell resources from other countries, Italy became reliant on Germany for them. Germany also put pressure on Italy to adopt its policies about Jews and its eugenics policies. Scholars disagree on whether Mussolini was truly antisemitic or indifferent. He enacted some laws to satisfy them, but Germany was unhappy since they were considered lax by their standards. Only foreign-born Jews living in Italy would be deported. Jews in Italy and its territories faced no deportations until the Germans took control in 1943.
The signing of the Pact of Steel on 22 May 1939 in Berlin Photographer unknown Public Domain/WIkimedia Commons
World War II did not go well for Italy. From losing battles and needing German assistance in Greece and North Africa, it began to wear thin. Inflation and rationing caused unrest; Allied bombings of Rome and other places brought it home. The invasion of Sicily in 1943 and later southern Italy showed that the war was lost. Disillusionment with Mussolini was now louder resulting in the Fascist Grand Council, with the support of King Emmanuel, ousting Mussolini and starting negotiations to end the war. The Germans were furious and Mussolini, being held at Hotel Campo Imperatore on a remote mountain top, was rescued. Germany would invade and take control of Italy and its territories. Mussolini was put in charge of an Italian puppet state and would execute many who had removed him from power, including his son-in-law Count Galeazzo Ciano.
By April 1945 with increased partisan attacks and Allied troops making their way towards Milan, Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci fled inside German transports heading north near the Swiss border on April 27. Mussolini had hoped to flee to Spain where he hoped Franco would give him sanctuary. Unfortunately, partisans stopped the German transports on. After exchanging gunfire and lengthy negotiations, the partisans were allowed to search for Italians in the transports. Mussolini had put on a Wehrmacht noncommissioned officers coat and a helmet but was recognized. He, his mistress, and about fifty other Italians with him (some were wives and children) were arrested. Mussolini was taken to Dongo on Lake Como, interrogated and then put into a room with others who had been captured with him. He made a statement critical of Hitler and saying Stalin was the victor. He also signed a statement he had not been ill-treated.
The following day he, Clara, and others with him were shot and killed. Contradictory statements by different people over the years has made it difficult to pinpoint exactly who gave the order. Many of the partisans were aligned with Communist groups backed by Moscow, which used a radio beamed from Moscow (Radio Milano-Libertà) for Italians to announce his arrest. So many believe it was in the chain of command within those groups that ordered Mussolini’s execution. There are also different accounts as to what happened during the actual execution. They were executed with several bullets in their chests. The bodies were taken to the Piazzale Loreto in Milan and dumped there for all to see. People threw vegetables, spat on them, urinated, kicked the famous head of Mussolini, and even shot more bullets into their bodies. By the time American troops arrived, the scene was out of control. The bodies were taken to a half-built service station and hung upside down for all to see. The famous photograph was distributed showing to the world that the Duce was dead.
Piazzale Loreto, 29 April 1945, the displayed bodies of executed Italian fascists. From left to right, Nicola Bombacci, Benito Mussolini, Claretta Petacci, Alessandro Pavolini, Achille Starace Photo: Vincenzo Carrese (1910–1981) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
His body, first buried in an unmarked grave then stolen, recovered, and then hidden in a monastery, is now at the family crypt in Predappio in Romagna.
CriticalPast. “Dead Body of Benito Mussolini Lay on a Street of the Village Giulino Di Mezzegra …HD Stock Footage.” Video. YouTube, April 26, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DsnDmdVJtPE.
On 23 August 1939 it was announced that Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union had signed a non-aggression treaty. The announcement was a complete surprise since Hitler had both in his writings and public speaking had denounced Communism and the Soviet Union. So why did this happen and what were its effects? Let’s find out.
Map of Europe and Western Asia in 1923 after World War I. Image via Wikimedia Commons
Both Germany and Russia had suffered in World War I. Germany was defeated by the Allies, lost its monarchy and colonial territories, and was ordered to pay huge reparations per the Versailles Treaty. Russia had gotten into the war to protect Serbia but was ill-equipped for a major war due to its limited resources and industrial capability. It suffered humiliating defeats during the war and its people suffered with reduced goods and services. This fed to unrest which led to Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate and allow a more democratic government to take over. Alas, that did not last as it continued in the war despite its unpopularity. This allowed the Communists, led by Lenin (who had been sent back to the country by Germany to foment chaos) to seize power and overturn the entire social and political structure of the country. In Germany, after a decade of vacillating leadership and discontent over inflation and Germany’s loss of status in the world, Adolf Hitler would lead the Nazi Party to victory after he was given the chancellorship in in 1933. Both Germany and Russia (now called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or just Soviet Union), were led by authoritarian governments that ruled with an iron fist.
The Soviet Union in its early days sought a promised world-wide revolution that never happened causing its leader Lenin and later Stalin to realize that building up the country first was needed before worldwide revolution. Hitler and the Nazi’s had a different view as they wanted to expand their country and restore pride in Germany. A new Germany was being formed with a clear ideology they were the people that would lead to change Europe and the world. By 1939, Germany was making its moves in Europe by invading Czechoslovakia. In 1938, they demanded and got a piece of Czechoslovakia when Britain and France, desperate to avoid war, forced Czechoslovakia to accept the deal breaking a treaty they had signed to defend it. Germany also annexed Austria that year as well uniting both countries. The invasion of Czechoslovakia told Britain and France that Hitler would not honor his agreements.
On the Russian side, Stalin had instituted programs to industrialize the country, but his brutal dictatorship had resulted in people being denounced, tried, and either imprisoned for years or executed. A climate of fear existed and not knowing whether someone had denounced you in secret made you wonder if you would come home that night. The Great Purge of 1936-1938 saw its officer corps depleted. The German Gestapo, feeding on Stalin’s paranoia, used the situation to use create documents that implicated many in the officer corps but also in government as well. The era became known for its show trials where the accused would be brought in, tried of a crime they didn’t commit, and faced imprisonment or death depending on the severity of the charge. Those who had become important members of government or close to Stalin that had been purged would be removed from the public record as well. Photos were retouched to show they were no longer walking, standing, or near Stalin or other people.
Stalin looked at expanding the Soviet Union by stealth or force into Europe. He hoped the war between the European nations would so weaken them so he could achieve his aims. Poland was, like Czechoslovakia a means to an end for both powers. Germany’s racial theory held the Polish people were, like the Jews, to be eliminated. For all the bad reasons, both Hitler and Stalin would come to terms and agree to a treaty that divided Poland into two spheres. Secret protocols to the pact indicated the demarcation lines and other things as well. The countries of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland were secretly divided up as well giving both Germany and the Soviet Union access to raw materials. This allowed Hitler to invade Poland in September. Russia would move to claim its share of Poland, which the German military was not quite happy about since in some areas they had to withdraw back to the lines agreed to in the secret protocols.
“Nothing more unbelievable could be imagined. Astonishment and skepticism turned quickly to consternation and alarm”. (Gunther, John (1940). Inside Europe. New York: Harper & Brothers.)
Stalin and Ribbentrop shaking hands over the newly signed pact between Germany and Soviet Union. August 23,1939 Source: German Federal Archive
The news of the agreement, popularly called the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, stunned the world. No one expected that Hitler would make a deal with Stalin. There had been some leaks suggesting of it, but no one thought it credible this would occur. The British and French had been in negotiations with the Soviets for months and were blindsided. Soviet propaganda heralded the agreement while others questioned secret protocols that were signed. Italy and the U.S. were given some limited information about them, but the full details were not disclosed. Soviet propaganda downplayed the previous attacks on Germany and Molotov himself made it clear they harbored no ill will. Nazi propaganda also had to do an about face as well. The Nazi’s had shut down the German Communist Party, imprisoned its leaders, and shut down its press. And they had nothing good to say about the Soviet Union either. Now they had to say everything was good with the hated Communist state.
Meanwhile the Baltic States began to worry how the rumored secret protocols would soon impact them. British and French attempts to meet with the Soviet negotiator over the agreement were rebuffed. Hitler said that with the treaty in place Britain should recognize Germany’s claims over Poland since it changed the situation from that of World War I. Instead, and to the German leader’s surprise, Britain announced a defense pact with Poland on 25 August 1939. Needless to say, Poland now realized it was being divided up by the two powers and war was coming.
How Central Europe would be divided up according the agreement. And what actually happened before Germany broke the treaty and attacked the Soviet Union. Author: Peter Hanula via Wikimedia Commons
The British and French governments had reached their end with Hitler; they no longer trusted him. In both countries the appeasement supporters diminished as reality set in that war was most certainly coming now with Germany. Neville Chamberlain, the chief supporter of the Munich Agreement a year before to avoid war, now realized his failure. He made it clear to Germany it would stand by Britain’s agreement to defend Poland. Hitler considered Chamberlain a fool and ordered the military to invade Poland as planned. The only question the Germans really had was whether those powers would do anything while they were attacking Poland. Both the British and French declared war on Germany when it invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 but took no immediate military action. It was a mistake that would prove costly for both countries later.
Aftermath
Stalin gambled that Hitler would focus on Europe and not on Russia. His goal was to build up the Soviet Union for war or to move in when his forces had subverted the country they wanted to take. Like many (including the German military high command) a two-front war was to be avoided. All of that went out of the window when Hitler decided he would invade Russia in 1941 under Operation Barbarossa. The goal of the operation was to remove and execute the leadership of Russia, take control of Russia, and make it a place for German resettlement. Stalin was not prepared for war and had discounted warnings Germany was about to invade as an attempt to get Russia to scuttle the treaty. Germany got the initial success and took territory easily defeating the military forces it encountered. However, they never took Moscow despite being twenty miles from it. And as time went on, faced more stiffer resistance and a military helped by American military equipment sent to help Russia defeat Hitler.
A vicious war broke out between the German and Russian forces creating now an Eastern Front that began to demand more resources than initially thought needed. The Soviet Union was getting supplies from the Allies using the dangerous North Atlantic to Murmansk route. And when the Allies landed in Europe in June 1944, this caused even more strain already on the limited resources Germany had. The Soviet troops started pushing back and ultimately forced Germany into retreat and ultimately to Berlin in 1945 where Hitler would commit suicide rather than be captured.
Stalin though did achieve his war aims in the end. Now with their troops in Poland and throughout Central Europe in countries they had liberated from Nazi rule, they would undermine the return of its former governments and subverted their political structure to ensure Communists would take charge. Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia all came to be controlled by the Soviet Union through governments that were installed and supported by them. It gave them access to sources of raw materials they had not had before and created a buffer around Russia. For people that had survived living under the yoke of Nazi controlled governments, it was simply swapping out one ideology for another with the same type of tyranny running things. Yugoslavia under Tito did break away from Moscow (he was fiercely independent but Communist) but that was about it.
The Iron Curtain, in black. Countries to the East of it are noted in Red and Warsaw Pact countries. NATO countries are blue, neutral states gray. Green depicts Yugoslavia which broke away from Moscow in 1948. Albania also had its own split starting in 1961 and in 1968 withdrew from the Pact but remained Communist. While a small part of Austria was occupied by the Soviet Union from 1945-1955, it did not join the Warsaw Pact and declared its neutrality. The small black dot in East Germany indicates West Berlin which was circled with the infamous Berlin Wall starting in 1961. Image: Sémhur via Wikimedia Commons
Until the fall of Communism began in 1991, these countries would remain either directly or indirectly controlled by Moscow through their governments. Some countries such as Czechoslovakia would break up (Czech Republic and Slovakia) after Communism ended. Yugoslavia would also break up as well into Bosnia, Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Romania had the most violent uprising (Poland had strikes that forced out the Communists) that ended with its leader being executed in the end. East Germany would be unified with West Germany ending the separation that had begun in 1945.
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On 25 Jul 1943 the Fascist Grand Council formerly voted Mussolini from power and was arrested later after meeting with King Victor Emmanuel III. So, what happened to the once all-powerful Duce? Let’s find out.
Benito Mussolini from the second edition of Adolf Dresler’s “Mussolini als Journalist” (1939) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Italy Aligns with Germany
On 22 May 1939 Italy signed a treaty with Germany that allied both countries militarily and politically. Mussolini nicknamed this treaty, formally known as the Pact of Friendship and Alliance, as the Pact of Steel. The treaty committed Italy to support Germany if attacked or if it declared war. Mussolini believed the pact would provide defense from other Western nations and provide support for his ambitions in the Balkans and elsewhere. Italy was in desperate need of resources due to international sanctions in using mustard gas to conquer Ethiopia. It also lacked the industrial capability at that time for a sustained military conflict. Germany and Italy shared similar interests in believing Fascism was on the march. Italy, like Germany, sided with Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). A treaty of mutual interest in 1936 brought them closer together and paved the way for the Pact of Steel. It was also Mussolini who coined the term Axis regarding the countries that signed the treaty.
Mussolini had hoped both the British and French would give him concessions after the Munich Agreement of 1938, where both powers forced Czechoslovakia to hand over territory to Germany. There was none and Mussolini gave speeches laying out Italy’s desire to take territory in North Africa, France, a part of Switzerland, and Albania. He also threatened British control of the seas and of taking Gibraltar. In both London and Paris, such talk was seen as signaling his territorial ambitions. In 1938, Italy invaded and conquered Albania convincing the other powers of his territorial ambitions. The Pact of Steel in 1939 cemented the partnership between the two countries that had been going on informally. Not all Fascists in Italy agreed with aligning with Germany. Foreign Minister Count Galeazzo Ciano, married to Mussolini’s daughter Edda, became skeptical later as Germany failed to disclose the planned to invade Poland as required by the treaty. While Ciano and other Fascists believed war with Britain and France was inevitable as both powers were blocking their ambitions, they did not see it occurring for a few more years. They dreadfully miscalculated Hitler’s aims and ambitions.
World War II
Mussolini knew that Italy was not ready for war until 1942 (and the Pact of Steel said neither side was to enter war till 1943). Lacking the raw resources and industrial capability, they needed to import both coal and steel. Countries like Britain banned those raw materials, making it difficult to acquire. Knowing this, Britain and France did try to lure Mussolini away from Germany by offering those resources. And it may have worked as Mussolini was preparing to sign documents to that effect. German pressure on Mussolini though scuttled it. They sent coal by train over the Alps to him to strengthen their friendship. The Italian Army was large on paper but lacked modern transport and weapons leaving them unable to hold their own against a fully trained and battle-ready army. Since supplies were critical to Italy, it failed to prepare its merchant fleet for war and lost many ships that were enemy ports when war was declared. Mussolini was warned by his military advisors to wait until war production would be able arm his military for war. While Italy easily took Albania, the British routed them in North Africa, and the Greeks were able to stop an Italian invasion of their country. In both cases, Germany sent troops to accomplish what the Italians failed to do. They were successful in Yugoslavia since German troops were with them. And the only declared war on France when Germany had defeated them so they could take territory in the south including Corsica. Thanks to Italian occupation in France though, Jews were safe as Italy refused German demands to turn them over.
Rationing of food and other supplies took its toll on the population. Due to a reduced merchant fleet, supplies became more difficult to acquire and had to rely on Germany for a lot of it. Inflation set in as well making it hard for many to buy the supplies. The poor military situation only made it worse and support for Mussolini began to slip. The army was lightly armored, the air force and navy were at odds with each other, poor leadership in the upper levels that were coupled with ill defined goals. Additionally, Mussolini might decide to do things on a whim making it a chaotic situation. With the Allies taking Sicily, landing in the south, and dropping bombs on Rome, most people had enough of the war. Both King Victor Emmanuel III and members of the Fascist Grand Council wanted Italy out of the war. Mussolini had to go.
Mussolini Sacked
The Fascist Grand Council met on 24 July 1943-a meeting that would last till the next morning-to discuss what to do. Mussolini, according to various accounts, looked sick, tired, and felt the burden of the military defeats suffered by the Italian military. For some, it appeared he wanted a way out and he got it. The Grand Council voted to remove him from power and transfer some of his powers to the king. There was opposition, but the majority voted for his removal. His son-in-law, Count Galeazzo Ciano, voted for his removal as well. Mussolini seemed stunned and dazed by it. His supporters tried to rally him, but he seemed deflated. He left for his meeting with King Emmanuel and arrived unshaven and groggy. He was informed by the king that he was under arrest and that General Pietro Badoglio would be taking over as Prime Minister. The war was seen as lost, the King Emmanuel reportedly said. Mussolini did not resist and seemed to accept it. He was told his family would remain safe. He was whisked away and imprisoned.
The announcement of Mussolini’s downfall was greeted with a general sense of relief. It was hoped this would mean the end of the war. The Fascists did not stage any protests or marches over his removal and imprisonment. He was being held at La Maddalena and later removed to a safer location to prevent his being rescued. The new Italian government negotiated behind the scenes seeking an armistice that would lead to a peace treaty. For a moment Italians breathed a sigh of relief hoping the war would soon be over.
Aftermath
Hitler was furious at his removal and knew the Italians would sign an armistice. Several German battalions were sent into Italy despite objections from the new government. When the armistice was announced on 3 September 1943, Operation Asche was implemented. German troops seized control of northern Italy and marched on Rome. They also seized all its territory in the Balkans and France. Italian forces were told to disarm or be fired upon. Some resistance was done in Rome as the royal family fled with the government. Corsica, Calabria, and Sardinia were successfully defended by Italian troops and repelled German troops until the Americans arrived. The Germans quickly implemented their anti-Jewish policies. Hitler ordered Mussolini found and was rescued from imprisonment at Hotel Campo Imperatore atop Gran Sasso d’Italia mountain range on 12 September 1943. Italians in the north would have to wait until June 1944 to be liberated.
[This was rewritten for 2025 correcting spelling, punctuation, and brevity]
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Pact of Steel | Italy–Germany [1939] | Britannica,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified March 18, 2009, https://www.britannica.com/event/Pact-of-Steel.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Italian Campaign | Summary, Map, Significance, Date, & World War II,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified July 2, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Italian-Campaign.
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The signing of the Pact of Steel on 22 May 1939 in Berlin Photographer unknown Public Domain/WIkimedia Commons
On 22 May 1939, Germany and Italy signed the Pact of Friendship and Alliance that became known later as the Pact of Steel. This began the formal military and political alliance between the two countries. Initially Japan was to be part of the agreement but there was disagreement on the focus of the pact. Germany and Italy wanted it aimed at the British Empire and France, while Japan wanted the Soviet Union to be the focus. The agreement was signed without Japan but would later join in September 1940.
The agreement brought together two countries that opposed each other in World War I. It also required each country to come to the aid of the other if it were in armed conflict with another nation. Neither party could make peace without the agreement of the other. One of the assumptions of the agreement was that war would start in three years at the latest. Italy needed the time to get its war production into high gear. The agreement was for ten years but there was some concern within the Italian government the agreement would suppress Italian autonomy. The agreement was still signed despite these objections, which also came from Mussolini’s son-in-law, Galeazzo Ciano, who was the Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Hitler, however, would soon declare his intentions of invading Poland. Mussolini was not happy he was not consulted on this, nor about the Molotov-Ribbentrop Agreement. Italian forces did not commit fully to war until June 1940 when German forces had defeated British and French forces with lightning speed. Italy seized Nice as its prize. Other countries it tried to invade proved more difficult. Greek partisans brought the Italian force to a halt. Germany would intervene to help there and in Yugoslavia where Italian troops also pushed back by partisans. A disastrous attack on British Egypt from Italian Libya required German assistance as well. The economic consequences of the war were bad for most Italians generating widespread resentment that would lead one day to Mussolini’s fall from power in 1943.
Nations of the Pact of Friendship and Alliance (Pact of Steel)
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Attempting to flee Italy into Austria dressed in a Luftwaffe coat and hat, the deposed dictator of Italy–Il Duce–Benito Mussolini was caught by partisans along with his mistress Clara Petacci. The partisans executed him and Petacci, transported their bodies to Milan, and hung them upside down so that everyone (especially his supporters) could see he was dead. He ruled Italy from 1925-1943, when he was deposed and subsequently imprisoned. He was rescued by Hitler’s forces and made the puppet leader of the Italian Social Republic in northern Italy. With German troops in retreat, he hoped to avoid being captured by either British or American forces. Pictures of his body being hung upside down in Piazzale Loreto in Milan would be spread to prove that Il Duce was no more.
On 25 Jul 1943 the Fascist Grand Council formally voted Mussolini from power and was arrested later after meeting with King Victor Emmanuel III. So, what happened to the once all-powerful Duce? Let’s find out.
Italy had entered into the Pact of Steel with Germany in 1939 which committed Italy to fighting along with Germany if it declared war or was attacked. Mussolini entered the agreement knowing full well Italy did not have the resources or industrial capability for a sustained military conflict. Mussolini had grand ambitions about expanding the Italian sphere of influence in the region and even into central Europe. Mussolini believed that Fascism was on the march and aligning with Hitler seemed a good choice at the time. Italy had successfully invaded Ethiopia (1935-1937) though not without them putting up a strong fight. Using mustard gas against troops and civilians had gotten Mussolini severely criticized and international sanctions.
The war in Ethiopia and his intervention on the side of Franco in the Spanish Civil War had brought Italy closer to Germany with a treaty of mutual interest in 1936. And he needed coal from Germany since international sanctions over Ethiopia had made acquiring it more difficult. Mussolini believed a German-Rome Axis would be how Europe would turn but relying on Germany to supply items like coal meant Italy was more dependent on Germany rather than a true partnership. Mussolini tried to get all kinds of concessions from the British and French after the Munich Agreement in 1938; none were given. He made it clear in speeches (and those by others) that they wanted territory in France, Tunisia, a small part of Switzerland, and Albania. He upped his demands to demand free access to the world’s oceans by breaking British control of key places such as Gibraltar.
From the viewpoint in London, Paris, and elsewhere, his bellicose talk signaled major territorial ambitions. The Fascists mostly supported this though some, like his foreign minister Count Galeazzo Ciano, were concerned about aligning with Germany. Taking on both Britain and France became accepted since they were the major colonial powers that Italy saw as blocking them from achieving their rightful position in the world. On 7 April 1938, Italy invaded Albania and took control in three days. The formal military alliance with Germany (the Pact of Steel) was signed on 2 May 1939 cementing further the military ambitions of both countries together. The Italians thought war with Britain and France would not occur for years but dreadfully miscalculated Hitler’s ambitions.
Italy was not ready for major war operations until 1942 according to his own advisors. The Pact of Steel had said neither side was to enter war until 1943. Italy desperately needed this time in order to get its industry running and lacked critical military industrial production. Both Britain and France had highly developed military industrial production, but Italy was woefully behind in key areas such as automobile production (key to making tanks and other mobile artillery). Additionally, Italy needed to acquire all the needed raw resources needed for war production. Italy was primarily an agriculturally based economy with small pockets of industrial sectors. They needed to setup a supply chain to bring in all the raw materials like coal and import steel. Italy’s merchant marine was not managed in preparation for war and would lose those ships as they were in foreign ports when war was declared by Italy in 1940.
Prior to that, raw materials being sent from European ports to Italy were subject to seizure. Coal, for instance, was shipped out of Rotterdam. The British declared it contraband and seized it, infuriating Mussolini. The Germans offered to ship by train over the Alps while the British countered saying they would supply all of his country’s needs if Italy supplied them armaments. The British hoped to lure Italy away from its alliance with Germany. And it appeared to work as Mussolini had approved a draft contract to provide military equipment. It was suddenly scrapped under intense pressure from Germany caused Mussolini to fold. This decision would come back to haunt him much later down the road.
Italian debt, already large when Mussolini, came to power, had increased thanks to his generous support of General Franco in Spain that increased it. The blockade of coal was strengthened and deeper reliance on German imports of raw materials occurred. The economy was bolstered by the important of goods from Germany, but inflation was occurring causing basic goods and service to become more expensive. When Italy entered the war in 1940, its merchant marine in foreign ports were seized leaving the country without hardly any means of getting needed supplies by cargo vessels.
Adding more to the woes, the warnings of his advisors were accurate. Italy’s army was huge making it a major land force on paper but in reality, lacked modern transport and weapons. The army, because of the weak economy, did not have the needed armaments or supplies for war, and was the major reason it failed. Lightly armored infantry is no match for a fully equipped company of troops with full battle-ready equipment like the British had. Along with both a navy and air force that did not work together well, Italy was ill-prepared for general warfare except for a country that had a worse military than it had. There was poor leadership as well at the top that never had clearly defined military objectives and seemed to go at the whim of whatever Duce wanted them to do. They easily took the lower portions of Vichy France and Corsica. About the only good thing they did in taking that was providing a refuge for fleeing Jews. The Italians did not follow the German lead much regarding the Jews, which caused the Germans frustration over the Italian non-compliance in this area.
The succeeding campaigns in North Africa and Greece ended badly. In North Africa the British put up a good fight and had routed the Italians. Then the Germans arrived with Rommel in charge making it a much tougher campaign for the British and later the Americans; Greece was a total debacle. They invaded from Albania, but the Greeks pushed them back into Albania ending up in a stalemate that cost both sides. Once again, the Germans invaded (the British were using Greece to fly bombing raids into Romania) and successfully took Greece and Crete. Only Yugoslavia was a success but that was because the Germans were part of the campaign and once the country was divided up, Italy got the coastal area.
By 1943 though, things had gotten worse for most Italians. Food and other items were rationed, wartime inflation made everything more expensive, and the war itself was unpopular with most Italians. Mussolini was no longer seen as the great leader and the recent bombing of Rome showed how his boasts were hollow. The invasion of Sicily and later the south by Allied forces showed the proverbial “writing was on the wall.” Mussolini knew that his military could not successfully fight the Allies but stuck to the war because he saw no other option but to fight it out. The Fascist Grand Council knew the war was lost and that Mussolini had lost his stature with the people.
On the night of 24 July and in the early morning of 25 July, the Grand Council met with Mussolini. Accounts of the meeting indicate he was sick, tired, and felt the burden of the military reverses suffered by the Italian military. To some, it seemed he was looking for a way out and it was given to him. The Grand Council voted to remove him from power and transfer some of his duties to the King. While some opposed it, the vote was carried by the majority. Even his son-in-law Count Galeazzo Ciano voted for his ouster. Mussolini seemed dazed by the vote and while his supporters tried to get him to act, he seemed unable to do anything. He would go to his meeting with the King (unshaven and groggy) where he would be arrested. The King told him that General Pietro Badoglio would be taking over as Prime Minister and that the war was lost. He and his family were assured of their safety, and he was whisked away. Mussolini accepted his fall as it absolved him of any more responsibility for the war.
When it was declared Mussolini was out, the general response was one of relief. His fellow Fascists did not stage marches or protests over his dismissal and did nothing to release him from his incarceration on La Maddalena (he would be moved elsewhere). Hitler was furious and knew that the Italians would seek an armistice with the Allies (which was true but in public said otherwise to keep the Germans at bay). For the Allies his dismissal was good news as they hoped it might bring an end to the Italian campaign. And many Italians thought it would as well, Unfortunately the Germans had other plans and that would drag out the war in Italy until June 1944, but that is a story for another time.
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[Editors note: This has been updated from 2023 with updated source information.]
Daily News, Los Angeles- Headline on Bombing of Rome Source: RareEarlyNewspapers.com All Rights Reserved
By 1943, Italians had seen shortages in basic goods and supplies requiring rationing as their merchant marine had been decimated by the war. This led to a lot of grumbling about the war and its effects on Italy. Mussolini’s popularity had begun to wane. He had convinced Italians that the Allies would never bomb the eternal city of Rome. Then on 19 July 1943, the U.S. bombed the Rome railway yards.
Both President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill had made a public appeal for Italians to reject Mussolini and save their country. The Allies by this time had invaded Sicily, and thanks to a clever deception, Hitler thought it initially a diversion. The Axis had been furthered weakened by its defeat in North Africa which had seen losses by both German and Italian forces. The advance of the Allied troops shook the Italian government. The bombing of Rome really caused panic in Rome as people went out into the streets.
It was much worse though as panic gave way to anger at Mussolini. People started destroying effigies of the dictator. And oddly, there was actually celebration of the attack as it was seen as leading to Mussolini’s demise. Hitler met with Mussolini to shore up his confidence after the attack. The attack had shaken him as well. Mussolini appeared unusually quiet in the meeting (he spoke poor German) and relied on the transcript later. Hitler tried to restore his confidence worried he might cave in and seek an armistice with the Allies. In the end, Mussolini agreed to continue the war though by this time he knew the truth. The Italian army was beaten and there was no way they could win the war. He could not tell that to Hitler fearing what he might do in response.
Hitler for his part was concerned that either Mussolini would surrender, or his own people might remove him. He quietly ordered Rommel to take control of the Greek islands in case something went wrong in Rome. The Germans would be ready to pounce when it did. And events happened faster than expected. Within a week the Fascist Grand Council would relieve Mussolini and he was put under arrest by the King.
The signing of the Pact of Steel on 22 May 1939 in Berlin Photographer unknown Public Domain/WIkimedia Commons
On 22 May 1939, Germany and Italy signed the Pact of Friendship and Alliance that became known later as the Pact of Steel. This began the formal military and political alliance between the two countries. Initially Japan was to be part of the agreement but there was disagreement on the focus of the pact. Germany and Italy wanted it aimed at the British Empire and France, while Japan wanted the Soviet Union to be the focus. The agreement was signed without Japan but would later join in September 1940.
The agreement brought together two countries that opposed each other in World War I. It also required each country to come to the aid of the other if it were in armed conflict with another nation. Neither party could make peace without the agreement of the other. One of the assumptions of the agreement was that war would start in three years at the latest. Italy needed the time to get its war production into high gear. The agreement was for ten years but there was some concern within the Italian government the agreement would suppress Italian autonomy. The agreement was still signed despite these objections, which also came from Mussolini’s son-in-law, Galeazzo Ciano, who was the Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Hitler, however, would soon declare his intentions of invading Poland. Mussolini was not happy he was not consulted on this, nor about the Molotov-Ribbentrop Agreement. Italian forces did not commit fully to war until June 1940 when German forces had defeated British and French forces with lightning speed. Italy seized Nice as its prize. Other countries it tried to invade proved more difficult. Greek partisans brought the Italian force to a halt. Germany would intervene to help there and in Yugoslavia where Italian troops also pushed back by partisans. A disastrous attack on British Egypt from Italian Libya required German assistance as well. The economic consequences of the war were bad for most Italians generating widespread resentment that would lead one day to Mussolini’s fall from power in 1943.
Attempting to flee Italy into Austria dressed in a Luftwaffe coat and hat, the deposed dictator of Italy–Il Duce–Benito Mussolini was caught by partisans along with his mistress Clara Petacci. The partisans executed him and Petacci, transported their bodies to Milan, and hung them upside down so that everyone (especially his supporters) could see he was dead. He ruled Italy from 1925-1943, when he was deposed and subsequently imprisoned. He was rescued by Hitler’s forces and made the puppet leader of the Italian Social Republic in northern Italy. With German troops in retreat, he hoped to avoid being captured by either British or American forces. Pictures of his body being hung upside down in Piazzale Loreto in Milan would be spread to prove that Il Duce was no more.
KateL. “Death of the Duce, Benito Mussolini.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, 27 Apr. 2020, www.nationalww2museum.org/death-of-benito-mussolini.
