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History

Remembering History: Napoleon Invades Russia (24 June 1812)

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IV corps of the Grande Armeé in the invasion of Russia (1812)
Albrecht Adam (1786 – 1862)
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Russia on 24 June 1812 in retaliation for Czar Alexander I not accepting Bonaparte’s Continental System. Napoleon assembled the largest fighting force up to that time called the Grande Armee. With over 500,000 soldiers and staff, it marched into Russia seeking a quick victory. It was not to be. The Russian Army under General Mikhail Kutuzov was in retreat refusing a full-scale engagement against the powerful French. As Russia troops retreated, they burned everything leaving nothing for the French to find.

By September, Napoleon had engaged the Russians at Battle of Borodino. The battle was indecisive but resulted in large losses on both sides. On 14 September he arrived in Moscow to find it empty as the people had evacuated. The Russian Army too had left leaving the city to Napoleon. With winter approaching, Napoleon decided to rest and use it for his winter quarters. Russian partisans though set fires in the city the next day resulting in the quarters he had selected destroyed. He waited for a month hoping for a surrender which never came. Now with winter closing in, Napoleon decided to leave. The retreat though was more difficult than they could have imagined.

Fire of Moscow (1812)
Viktor Mazurovsky (1859–1944)
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

An early winter set in making it harder on his troops and food was rationed. The Russians, it seems, had not fully retreated, and began attacking the troops in the rear. Cossacks with very sharp lances attacked ruthlessly. They made it to the Berezina River in November but found Russians waiting for them. Using makeshift bridges, Napoleon and his troops started crossing but the Russians attacked. Napoleon burned the bridges stranding over 10,000 on the other side to be captured or killed by the Russians. Napoleon, in a hurry to return to Paris, would eventually leave his troops behind. The remaining force would eventually return home but fewer than a 100,000 made it back home. The loss of over 400,000 was staggering and called into question his leadership of the French Empire.

Aftermath

The disastrous invasion of Russia has long been studied by historians and military strategists. His basic idea of invading was sound, but he underestimated how long it would take and the will of the Russians to make him pay dearly for every inch he gained. Napoleon thought it would be a quick victory, but it turned into a long painful retreat with an early winter, few food supplies, and his army being attacked by Russians. If you read accounts of those who survived, it is truly horrific the conditions they had to retreat under. Dead animals used for fuel; bodies stacked in windows for insulation. If you recall Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back scene where Han Solo rips open his now dead ride so they can crawl inside it for warmth, this happened for real here.

Napoleon’s withdrawal from Russia by Adolph Northen (1828-1876)
Public Domain (via Wikimedia Commons)

His defeat in Russia strengthened his enemies. Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Sweden would now ally with Russia against Napoleon. British forces under Wellington were slowly but steadily pushing the French out of Spain. While Napoleon would have some victories, two defeats hurt his reign enormously. The Battle of Vittoria in Spain on 21 June 1813 would end French domination of Spain. His brother Joseph that he had put on the throne, was forced to flee for his life. Sadly, the royal crown worn by Spanish kings was lost in the melee of the retreat and never to be found again. And in October 1813, he suffered a crushing defeat in the Battle of Leipzig. Paris would fall the following March forcing him into exile. He would briefly return in 1815 but be defeated again in the Battle of Waterloo

Invading Russia has not proven successful for any conquering general. You might get initial successes, as Hitler did, but it seems to always turn around against the invader. Hitler, like Napoleon, thought the campaign would be quick. Instead after their initial victories, Operation Barbarossa ran into real problems. General Franz Halder realized he had sorely underestimated how many divisions the Russians could field. And because of the long distances involved, it became very hard for Germans to hold their lines. Moscow was in at sight at one point, but they never got there due to the long expanse of territory, supply issues, and underestimating the strength of Russia. Like Napoleon, the German forces were stalled. Halder believed without a powerful lightning strike, there was little chance for success. Owing to policy and strategy differences with Hitler, he was dismissed. The damage was done and the losses substantial. The Russians would push eventually the Germans out of their country and follow them all the way back to Berlin.

Sources

“Napoleon’s Grande Armée Invades Russia -June 24, 1812.” HISTORY. Last modified May 27, 2025. Accessed June 23, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/june-24/napoleons-grande-armee-invades-russia.

Greenspan, Jesse. “Why Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia Was the Beginning of the End.” HISTORY. Last modified May 27, 2025. Accessed June 23, 2026. https://www.history.com/articles/napoleons-disastrous-invasion-of-russia.

Knighton, Andrew. “6 Reasons Why Napoleon Invaded Russia.” Warhistoryonline. Last modified July 15, 2017. Accessed June 23, 2026. https://www.warhistoryonline.com/napoleon/6-reasons-napoleon-invaded-russia.html.

Videos

Epic History. “Napoleonic Wars: Napoleon Invades Russia 1812.” Video. YouTube, October 10, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f3zId15Q23M

Suggested Reading
[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]

Allen, W. S. (1984). The Nazi seizure of power: The Experience of a Single German Town, 1922-1945. Franklin Watts.

De Segur, P. (2008). Defeat: Napoleon’s Russian Campaign. New York Review of Books.

Foord, E. (2022). Napoleon’s Russian campaign of 1812. Independently published.

Engelmann, B. (1986). In Hitler’s Germany: Daily Life in the Third Reich. Pantheon.

Gilbert, Martin. The Second World War: A Complete History. Macmillan, 2004.

Lieven, D. (2011). Russia against Napoleon: The True Story of the Campaigns of War and Peace. National Geographic Books.

History

Remembering History: Mussolini Executed by Italian Partisans (28 April 1945)

 

Benito Mussolini
Public Domain

Benito Mussolini, who once ruled Italy and created Fascism, was executed by Italian partisans while attempting to flee Italy.

Benito Mussolini started out as Communist, became dissatisfied with it, and conceived a new ideology called Fascism that fused elements of Communism with Nationalism. Italy after World War I was economically suffering. It had supported the Allies and was promised territory but got nothing. Mostly agrarian based with only a few centers of large industry, Italy was considered backward by European standards. Mussolini sought to change this by making people believe in Italy again. Being an ardent Communist and editing one of Italy’s prominent Communist newspapers, he originally believed in its principles but World War I disillusioned him. He crafted a new ideology, Fascism, that incorporated elements of both Communism and Nationalism, that would bring about a better nation.

His movement garnered many supporters eager to make Italy a better and stronger nation. After King Emmanuel III dissolved parliament in 1921, Mussolini used this to demand more power. His party had gained seats and with uniformed members out on the streets, highly visible as well. They gained power in cities, and the Black Shirts went after Communists and Socialists destroying their offices. In 1922, King Emmanuel was faced with major problems of civil unrest. Calling out the army did little good and the Fascists controlled many municipalities. A march on Rome brought Mussolini and thousands to Rome demanding he be put into power. To avoid more unrest, King Emmanuel appointed him as Prime Minister and would rule Italy from 1923-1943.

Fascism, like Communism, disdained democracy as weak and governed as a one-party state where dissent was limited. Dissidents were imprisoned or executed depending on the severity of their actions. All media–print, radio, and movies–had to reflect the views of the government. Journalists had to belong to a national organization that would bound them to support Mussolini. Every aspect of life in Italy came under its control as Mussolini envisioned it would. The Catholic Boy Scouts were dissolved and replaced by a Fascist one called Opera Nazionale Balilla and all young boys were encouraged to join but it became mandatory in 1937. Much of what the Fascists did in Italy would become the model for Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party in Germany. Though Mussolini at first disdained Hitler, they eventually became friends. Both believed that Fascism was on the march and would replace the old order of Europe. The Spanish Civil War of 1936 saw both Hitler and Mussolini support General Francisco Franco against the Communist inspired government backed by Moscow.

Mussolini seized Ethiopia in 1935 sparking world-wide outrage over the use of mustard gas. Hitler backed him and both countries would exit the League of Nations in 1937. With the signing of the Pact of Steel in 1939, Mussolini had tied Italy to Germany’s war aims. Italy faced problems building up its military. It sorely lacked the industrial capability to build its own munitions, ships, and other necessities. Because of boycotts and refusals to sell resources from other countries, Italy became reliant on Germany for them. Germany also put pressure on Italy to adopt its policies about Jews and its eugenics policies. Scholars disagree on whether Mussolini was truly antisemitic or indifferent. He enacted some laws to satisfy them, but Germany was unhappy since they were considered lax by their standards. Only foreign-born Jews living in Italy would be deported. Jews in Italy and its territories faced no deportations until the Germans took control in 1943.

The signing of the Pact of Steel on 22 May 1939 in Berlin
Photographer unknown
Public Domain/WIkimedia Commons

World War II did not go well for Italy. From losing battles and needing German assistance in Greece and North Africa, it began to wear thin. Inflation and rationing caused unrest; Allied bombings of Rome and other places brought it home. The invasion of Sicily in 1943 and later southern Italy showed that the war was lost. Disillusionment with Mussolini was now louder resulting in the Fascist Grand Council, with the support of King Emmanuel, ousting Mussolini and starting negotiations to end the war. The Germans were furious and Mussolini, being held at Hotel Campo Imperatore on a remote mountain top, was rescued. Germany would invade and take control of Italy and its territories. Mussolini was put in charge of an Italian puppet state and would execute many who had removed him from power, including his son-in-law Count Galeazzo Ciano.

By April 1945 with increased partisan attacks and Allied troops making their way towards Milan, Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci fled inside German transports heading north near the Swiss border on April 27. Mussolini had hoped to flee to Spain where he hoped Franco would give him sanctuary. Unfortunately, partisans stopped the German transports on. After exchanging gunfire and lengthy negotiations, the partisans were allowed to search for Italians in the transports. Mussolini had put on a Wehrmacht noncommissioned officers coat and a helmet but was recognized. He, his mistress, and about fifty other Italians with him (some were wives and children) were arrested. Mussolini was taken to Dongo on Lake Como, interrogated and then put into a room with others who had been captured with him. He made a statement critical of Hitler and saying Stalin was the victor. He also signed a statement he had not been ill-treated.

The following day he, Clara, and others with him were shot and killed. Contradictory statements by different people over the years has made it difficult to pinpoint exactly who gave the order. Many of the partisans were aligned with Communist groups backed by Moscow, which used a radio beamed from Moscow (Radio Milano-Libertà) for Italians to announce his arrest. So many believe it was in the chain of command within those groups that ordered Mussolini’s execution. There are also different accounts as to what happened during the actual execution. They were executed with several bullets in their chests. The bodies were taken to the Piazzale Loreto in Milan and dumped there for all to see. People threw vegetables, spat on them, urinated, kicked the famous head of Mussolini, and even shot more bullets into their bodies. By the time American troops arrived, the scene was out of control. The bodies were taken to a half-built service station and hung upside down for all to see. The famous photograph was distributed showing to the world that the Duce was dead.

Piazzale Loreto, 29 April 1945, the displayed bodies of executed Italian fascists. From left to right, Nicola Bombacci, Benito Mussolini, Claretta Petacci, Alessandro Pavolini, Achille Starace
Photo: Vincenzo Carrese (1910–1981)
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

His body, first buried in an unmarked grave then stolen, recovered, and then hidden in a monastery, is now at the family crypt in Predappio in Romagna.

Sources

“Benito Mussolini: Children, Death & World War II – HISTORY | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified June 30, 2025. https://www.history.com/articles/benito-mussolini.

Citno, Robert PhD. “Death of the Duce, Benito Mussolini.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. Last modified April 27, 2020. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/death-of-benito-mussolini.

Deac, Wil. “How Did Benito Mussolini Die? The Story Behind Il Duce’s Last Moments.” Warfare History Network. Last modified March 13, 2024. https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/how-did-benito-mussolini-die-the-story-behind-il-duces-last-moments/.

Foot, John. “Benito Mussolini.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified April 24, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benito-Mussolini.

“Mussolini, Mistress Executed by Firing Squad – UPI Archives.” UPI, April 29, 1945. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1945/04/29/Mussolini-mistress-executed-by-firing-squad/7511360114334/.

Videos

CriticalPast. “Dead Body of Benito Mussolini Lay on a Street of the Village Giulino Di Mezzegra …HD Stock Footage.” Video. YouTube, April 26, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DsnDmdVJtPE.

History Comes to Life. “Mussolini Dead, 1945 | Restored News Footage.” Video. YouTube, August 2, 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mV7Cp9v13xI.

History

Fascinating History: Hitler Learns War Is Lost (22 April 1945)

July 1947 photo of the rear entrance to the Führerbunker in the garden of the Reich Chancellery.
German Federal Archives, Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-V04744 / CC-BY-SA 3.0

The defeat of German forces at the Battle of the Bulge in December 1945 ended any serious attempt by German forces to launch any further major military campaigns. In March 1945 American forces captured the Ludendorff Bridge intact allowing them to enter Germany over the Rhine. Meanwhile Soviet forces were pushing in from the East and closing in on Berlin. Due to Allied air attacks on Berlin, Hitler and his staff relocated from the Reich Chancellery to the Fuhrerbunker. This underground complex served as the command center for the Third Reich in the last months of its existence.

Hitler had remained inside this complex from the beginning of January 1945 only briefly coming up on April 20, his 56th birthday, to award the Iron Cross to Hitler Youth boys. On April 22, 1945, Soviet troops began entering Berlin suburbs meeting no resistance. When informed, Hitler was enraged and denounced the army for failing him and Germany. He stated that he knew the war was lost and despite being offered a way to flee south, decided to stay. Hermann Goering, his once designated successor, now would try to seize power under a 1941 decree giving him the power believing Hitler had incapacitated himself from power. It failed and he was forced to resign and put under house arrest. Hitler would later expel him from the Nazi Party. Heinrich Himmler was also trying to negotiate with the Allies via Sweden. When the BBC reported on April 28 that this was going on, Hitler was stunned as he considered Himmler one of his most loyal persons serving under him. He ordered Himmler’s aide in the bunker, who had been captured trying to desert, to be court-martialed and shot. He ordered Himmler’s arrest, expelled him from the Nazi party, and stripped him of all his titles. The once invincible Third Reich was in its last days.

Sources

“Hitler Admits Defeat | April 22, 1945 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified February 18, 2025. Accessed April 21, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/april-22/hitler-admits-defeat.

Evans, Richard J. “Bitter End: Hitler’s Downfall and the End of the War and the Third Reich.” HistoryExtra. Last modified October 18, 2024. Accessed April 21, 2026. https://www.historyextra.com/period/second-world-war/adolf-hitler-downfall-ww2-bunker/.

Knapp, Wilfrid F. “Adolf Hitler.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified April 21, 2026. Accessed April 21, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Adolf-Hitler.

Milligan, Mark. “Führerbunker – Hitler’ Last Bunker.” HeritageDaily – Archaeology News. Last modified March 22, 2022. Accessed April 21, 2026. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2021/03/fuhrerbunker-hitlers-last-bunker/137885.

Documentaries & Videos

History Inside. “The Führerbunker After 1945 — What Really Happened?” Video. YouTube, November 24, 2025. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BwEaeH0nD8c.

Suggested Reading

[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]

Allen, William Sheridan. The Nazi Seizure of Power: The Experience of a Single German Town, 1922-1945, Revised Edition. Echo Point Books & Media, 2014.

Gilbert, Martin The Second World War: A Complete History (Elsevier, 2004).

Hanson, Victor Davis. The Second World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won. Basic Books, 2017.

Keegan, John. The Second World War. Penguin Books, 2005.

Shirer, William L. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany. Simon and Schuster, 2011.

[This has been rewritten from 2025 and new sources added.]

History

Battle of the Bulge Begins (16 December 1944)

This photo from a captured Nazi shows German troops rushing across a Belgian road blocked with vehicles and armor during the enemy attack against the American Army which began Dec. 16th, 1944.
Public Domain via U.S. National Archives

By December 1944 it had become clear to the German military and civilian leadership that that they would not be able to thwart a Soviet invasion without first ending the war in the West. Hitler, who had assumed direct control of the military in 1941, ordered a winter offensive that would deny the Allies the use of Antwerp’s port and to split the Allied lines. It was believed that if they achieved these aims it would force the British and Americans to seek a cease fire and a peace treaty. This then would free up the Wehrmacht to concentrate all its forces to defeat the expected Soviet invasion.

The Germans used 250,000 soldiers, 14 infantry divisions, and five panzer divisions in its initial assault on 16 December 1944. They attacked early in the morning on the weakest part of the Allied line, an 80 mile poorly defended stretch that was mainly hilly and a woody forest as well. The Allied leadership believed the Germans would not be able to traverse the Ardennes and therefore did not consider it a location for a German offensive. This was the same unfortunate thinking that doomed Singapore. The British concentrated all their forces to repel a frontal assault and left the rear-mainly jungle-lightly protected since they did not believe the Japanese would traverse that difficult terrain to attack. Unfortunately for the British, that is what the Japanese did and captured Singapore.

The Germans threw 250,000 soldiers into the initial assault, 14 German infantry divisions guarded by five panzer divisions-against a mere 80,000 Americans. Their assault came in early morning at the weakest part of the Allied line, an 80-mile poorly protected stretch of hilly, woody forest (the Allies simply believed the Ardennes too difficult to traverse, and therefore an unlikely location for a German offensive). Between the vulnerability of the thin, isolated American units and the thick fog that prevented Allied air cover from discovering German movement, the Germans were able to push the Americans into retreat. While some Allied troops were taken prisoner, some were not so fortunate. The following day in Malmedy, Belgium, a group of Americans from the 285th Field Artillery Observation Battalion were captured and rounded up in a field. They had been captured by the 1st SS Leibstandarte “Adolf Hitler” Division under SS Obersturmbahnführer (Lieutenant Colonel) Joachim “Jochen” Peiper.

The American troops were not front- line troops but were in a convoy when captured. They were taken to a field and with their arms raised, were fired on by German machine gunners. After that was over, SS soldiers shot the wounded and those groaning. Of the 113 Americans captured, 84 were dead. Those that survived feigned death. A Belgian widow, who witnessed the massacre, was also killed. Other Belgians in the area also saw it as well. Since the SS routinely did this, they had no reason to conceal it and moved on. News of the atrocity would spread fast from the survivors to the fighting troops in the area.

Six weeks of battle would result and the besieged troops in the surrounded town of Bastogne refused to give in. When asked to surrender, Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe answered with famous “NUTS” reply. The U.S. 3rd Army drive to relieve Bastogne has become legend. Over 600,00o troops were involved making it the largest battle ever fought by the US Army in history.

Despite the intense cold, the Allied lines did not break and ultimately the Germans were forced back to Germany. Hitler’s gamble failed but it did upset the Allied war preparations causing a lot of damage. However tactically the German counteroffensive failed. Germany lost 120,000 men and material stores it could not replace easily. The Allies suffered 75,000 casualties but Germany no longer had the ability to put up a prolonged resistance to the renewed Allied offensive. German troops and their leaders knew that they lacked the ability to turn the tide and hopes for an end to the war were dashed for good. When the combat casualties of American troops was counted after the war, ten percent of the total casualties came to American troops at the Battle of the Bulge.

Sources

“Battle of the Bulge.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified December 9, 2025. Accessed December 16, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Bulge.

The-Battle-Of-The-Bulge. “Battle of the Bulge: The Largest WW2 Battle.” Last modified March 13, 2025. Accessed December 16, 2025. https://the-battle-of-the-bulge.com/.

“Battle of the Bulge | the United States Army.” Battle of the Bulge | the United States Army. Accessed December 16, 2025. https://www.army.mil/botb/.

“Battle of the Bulge – Definition, Dates & Who Won.” HISTORY. Last modified May 27, 2025. Accessed December 16, 2025. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/december-16/battle-of-the-bulge.

Huxen, Keith. “The Battle of the Bulge.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. Last modified December 17, 2019. Accessed December 16, 2025. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/battle-of-the-bulge.

Suggested Reading

Ambrose, Stephen E. Band of Brothers: E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler’s Eagle’s Nest. Simon and Schuster, 2017.

Ambrose, Stephen, and C. L. Sulzberger. American Heritage History of World War II. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform, 2016.

———. Citizen Soldiers: The U.S. Army from the Normandy Beaches to the Bulge to the Surrender of Germany June 7, 1944, to May 7, 1945. Simon and Schuster, 2013.

———. D-Day: June 6, 1944: The Climactic Battle of World War II. Simon & Schuster, 1994.

Gilbert, Martin The Second World War: A Complete History (Elsevier, 2004).

Hanson, Victor Davis. The Second World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won. Basic Books, 2017.

Keegan, John. The Second World War. Penguin Books, 2005.

Toland, John. The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936-1945. Modern Library, 2003.

 

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History

Remembering History: Nuremberg Trials Begin (20 November 1945)

Nuremberg Trials. Defendants in their dock, circa 1945-1946.
(in front row, from left to right): Hermann Göring, Rudolf Heß, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Wilhelm Keitel
(in second row, from left to right): Karl Dönitz, Erich Raeder, Baldur von Schirach, Fritz Sauckel)
Public Domain (Wikipedia)

In the aftermath of World War II, there was debate about how to hold accountable those responsible for war crimes and especially the Holocaust. Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler and Joseph Goebbels were already dead by suicide. Churchill had the simplest approach of wanting to simply execute them, but it was decided that tribunal would be a better method. The tribunal would reveal to the world the extent of the crimes upon humanity the persons were responsible for.

The concept of an international tribunal was novel and had never been done before. Then again, no nation had before committed to full scale extermination of whole peoples as the Nazi’s had tried to do. An international tribunal composed of representatives from Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States was formed. Defendants faced charges that varied from war crimes to crimes against humanity. Twenty- four were indicted along with six Nazi organizations such as the Gestapo that were also determined to be criminal. One was declared medically unfit to stand trial and another committed suicide before the trial began. Two top Hitler associates, Heinrich Himmler (1900-45) and Joseph Goebbels (1897-45), had each committed suicide in the spring of 1945 before they could be brought to trial.

Each defendant was allowed to choose their own lawyers. They all pled not guilty and either argued that the crimes they committed were declared crimes after the London Charter (meaning ex post facto) or that they were applying harsh standards as they were the victors. The trials would last 1 October 1946 when verdicts were handed down. Twelve were sentenced to death and others got prison terms. On 16 October 1946, 10 Nazi policy architects were hanged. Hermann Goering, who had been called the “leading war aggressor and creator of the oppressive program against the Jews,” committed suicide by poison the night before. Martin Bormann was tried in absentia and many thought he had escaped Germany. However, he never left Berlin, and his remains were eventually found (it appears he committed suicide), examined, and conclusively identified in 1988 using DNA. Other war criminals (German and Axis government leaders both civilian and military) would be tried into the 1950’s. 5,025 were convicted and 806 were executed. Those not sentenced to death, depending on what they did, served life sentences or were given shorter sentences.

Sources

“Nuremberg Trials,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified November 5, 2025, accessed November 20, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/event/Nurnberg-trials.

“Nuremberg Trials Begin | November 20, 1945 | HISTORY,” HISTORY, last modified May 28, 2025, accessed November 20, 2025, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/november-20/nuremberg-trials-begin.

“Nuremberg Trials | Holocaust Encyclopedia,” Holocaust Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-nuremberg-trials.

“The Nuremberg Trials,” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/topics/nuremberg-trials.

“What Were the Nuremberg Trials?,” HISTORY, last modified November 3, 2025, accessed November 20, 2025, https://www.history.com/articles/nuremberg-trials.

Suggested Reading

Conot, Robert E. Justice at Nuremberg. Basic Books, 1993.

Gilbert, G. M. Nuremberg Diary. Da Capo Press, 1995.

Persico, Joseph E. Nuremberg: Infamy on Trial. Penguin, 1995.

Taylor, Telford. The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials: A Personal Memoir. Skyhorse, 2013

Titanic News Channel is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com.

History

Remembering History: Kristallnacht/Night of the Broken Glass (9-10 November 1938)

Kristallnacht, 1938, Magdeburg
German Federal Archives

On November 9-10 1938, a violent wave of anti-Jewish pograms broke out in Germany, Austria and Sudetanland. Called Kristallnacht (means literally Night of Crystal but commonly called Night of Broken Glass) violent mobs destroyed synagogues, looted Jewish owned businesses, homes and schools, and arrested 30,000 Jewish men who were sent to concentration camps. Police and fire were ordered to stand down and only act to prevent damage to German buildings. Nearly all the Jewish synagogues were torched, except those close to historical sites or buildings.

Thanks to the presence of foreign reporters in Germany at the time, this event became known to the world changing perceptions about the Nazi regime.

Nazi officials depicted the event as a genuine response of the people to the assassination of German diplomat Ernst vom Rath in Paris by Herschel Grynszpan on 7 Nov 1938. Grynszpan, a 17-year old boy, was distraught over his family’s deportation from Germany to Poland. Vom Rath’s death two days later coincided with the anniversary of the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch. The Nazi Party leadership assembled in Munich used the occasion to push for demonstrations against the Jews arguing that “World Jewry” had conspired to commit the assassination. However, Hitler ordered that the demonstrations should not look they were prepared or organized by the Nazis’. They had to look spontaneous. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels was the chief instigator following Hitler’s orders in his speech to the assembled party officials.

The regional Nazi party leaders issued instructions to their local offices about how to proceed. Reinhard Heydrich, as head of the Security Police, sent instructions to headquarters and stations of the State Police and SA leaders about the upcoming riots. The SA, Hitler Youth and others were ordered to wear civilian clothes so it would like genuine public reaction. Heydrich ordered the rioters to not endanger non-Jewish German life or property.  The rioters were also ordered to remove all synagogue archives prior to vandalizing and destroying them. Police were ordered to arrest as many young Jewish men their jails would hold.

Violence began to erupt in the late evening of 9 November and in the early morning hours of 10 November. The two largest Jewish communities, Berlin and Vienna, would see massive destruction. Mobs of SA and Hitler Youth shattered store windows. They attacked Jews in their homes and looted. They publicly humiliated Jews in the streets. Many Jews were killed as well though numbers vary but likely in the hundreds. Jewish cemeteries were desecrated. Those who were arrested by the SS and Gestapo ended up in Buchenwald, Dachau and Sachsenhausen and other camps as well.  Many would die in the camps and many who were released had promised to leave Germany. Kristallnacht would spur Jews to emigrate from Germany.

Aftermath

German leaders blamed Jews for the riots and fined the Jewish community one billion Reich Marks. To pay the fine, Germany seized property and insurance money. This left Jewish owners personally responsible for repair costs. Kristallnacht accelerated more laws and decrees to deprive Jews of the property and their ability to make a living. The Aryanization of businesses required many Jewish owned businesses and property to be transferred to non-Jews. Usually they got paid a fraction of the true value of the business or property. By this time, Jews could not be government workers or in any aspect of the public sector. Now many professions in the private sector were unavailable as well (doctors, lawyers, accountants etc.). Jews were no longer allowed to have a driver’s license, expelled from any German school they were still attending, be admitted to German theaters (movies and stage) or concert halls.

Kristallnacht was covered by newspapers in the United State and elsewhere. It was front page news in the United States in large banner headlines and perhaps the largest story of Jewish persecution to be reported during the Nazi years. Despite attempts by German censors to prevent images from getting to newspapers in the United States, pictures got out and got printed in the 28 November 1938 issue of Life magazine. A telling heading published on the front page of the Los Angeles Examiner says it all:

Nazis Warn World Jews Will Be Wiped Out Unless Evacuated By Democracies (23 Nov 1938)

President Roosevelt denounced the attack on Jews at a press conference on 15 November 1938 and recalled the US ambassador to Germany (the US was the only one to do this) and not replaced till 1945. A chargé d’affaires would handle diplomatic relations with Germany until war was declared in 1941. The US and other countries had restrictive immigration quotas in place at the time. However, 12,000 German Jews already in the United States were allowed to stay and not be sent back to Germany. Attempts to allow refuge for children under 14 were introduced in Congress but despite widespread support did not get voted into law.

Kristallnacht is rightly seen as the turning point in Nazi policy and world-wide opinion of the regime. The Nazi’s began concentrating their pogroms into the hands of the SS and more restrictive policies on the Jews. They radicalized and expanded the measures to remove Jews from the economic and social life of Germany. It would lead to policies of forced emigration and deportations to the East and the goal of Judenrein-a Germany free of Jews.

Sources

Berenbaum, Michael. “Kristallnacht | Definition, Date, Facts, & Significance.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified November 9, 2025. Accessed November 11, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/event/Kristallnacht.’

Dawsey, Jason. “Kristallnacht: The Night of Broken Glass.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. Last modified November 30, 2023. Accessed November 11, 2025. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/kristallnacht-night-broken-glass.

“On This Day: 87 Years Since Kristallnacht, the Catalyst of the Holocaust,” The Jerusalem Post | JPost.Com, last modified November 9, 2025, accessed November 11, 2025, https://www.jpost.com/history/article-873181.

“Nazis Launch Kristallnacht | November 9, 1938 | HISTORY,” HISTORY, last modified November 5, 2025, accessed November 11, 2025, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/november-9/nazis-launch-kristallnacht.

“The November Pogrom (Kristallnacht),” 9-10 November 1938, accessed November 11, 2025, https://wwv.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/kristallnacht/index.asp.

“Kristallnacht | Holocaust Encyclopedia,” Holocaust Encyclopedia, accessed November 11, 2025, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/kristallnacht.

Suggested Reading

Gilbert, Martin. Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction. Harper Collins, 2006.

Karlauf, Thomas, and Uta Gerhardt. The Night of Broken Glass: Eyewitness Accounts of Kristallnacht. Polity, 2021.

Titanic News Channel is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com.

 

History

Remembering History: Hitler and the Beer Hall Putsch (8-9 November 1923)

Munich Marienplatz during the failed Beer Hall Putsch (9 Nov 1923)
Photographer unknown
German Federal Archives via Wikimedia Commons

The end of World War I had left Germany in dire economic straits. The allies demanded reparations through the Versailles Treaty resulting in staggering inflation as Germany tried to pay. By 1923 the German mark was valued at four billion marks per dollar causing many who disliked the new democratic government to join the nationalist Nazi Party. Others were drawn the Nazi’s as well for their strong anti-communist views and their vocal dislike of Jews.

Adolf Hitler planned a coup in Bavaria that he hoped would spread and bring down the central government. On 8 November 1923, Hermann Goering surrounded the Munich beer hall where Bavarian officials were meeting with local business leaders. Hitler, with the aid of Nazi stormtroopers, charged into the hall with Hitler firing off a gun proclaiming the revolution has begun. The Bavarian officials decided to reluctantly support Hitler. However, the following day they would rescind that support and ordered troops to surround the Nazi forces that had taken control of the War Ministry building. Hitler decided to lead a March to the center of Munich. He had 3,000 marchers with him to 100 or more policemen blocking them. Shots were fired and 16 Nazis and 3 policemen were killed. Goering was wounded the groin and Hitler had a dislocated shoulder and managed to escape.

Defendants in the Munich Beer Hall Putsch, 1 April 1924
Photographer: Heinrich Hoffmann (1885–1957)
Source: German Federal Archives via Wikimedia Commons

The Beer Hall Putsch collapsed, and Hitler was arrested. He was charged with treason and sentenced to 5 years in jail. During his time in the Landsberg fortress, he wrote his autobiography Mein Kampf. Political pressure on the Bavarian government got his sentence commutated and he ended up serving only nine months in jail. The Nazi movement would continue to grow in strength in the 1920’s gaining more support against the Weimar government, Communism and Jews. The Beer Hall Putsch would be remembered by the Nazi Party.  Although they lost, they used it for propaganda purposes and celebrated the heroes of that day.

Sources

“Beer Hall Putsch | Facts, Summary, & Outcome,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified November 1, 2025, accessed November 3, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/event/Beer-Hall-Putsch.

“Beer Hall Putsch Begins | November 8, 1923 | HISTORY,” HISTORY, last modified May 28, 2025, accessed November 3, 2025, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/november-8/beer-hall-putsch-begins..

History

Siege of Leningrad Begins (8 September 1941)

On 8 Sep 1941, German forces began their siege of Leningrad that would last 872 days making it one of the most grueling sieges in modern warfare.

The fire of anti-aircraft guns deployed in the neighborhood of St. Isaac’s cathedral during the defense of Leningrad (now called St. Petersburg, its pre-Soviet name) in 1941.
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Leningrad, known previously as St. Petersburg and the Russian capital before the Communist Revolution of 1918, was a major industrial center. As the second largest Russian city, it was a strategic city for the Germans to conquer. When war started with Germany in 1941, most of the industrial plants and their workers were relocated to safer areas to prevent capture. However, this left approximately two million to face the rapidly moving German army. Everyone from old to young was conscripted to build anti-tank fortifications around the city. In July, the railway to Moscow was cut off by and German forces began besieging the outer fortifications. By September 8, they were outside the city but unable to enter due to both the fortifications and about 200,000 Red Army soldiers. German bombers destroyed warehouses and other infrastructure to making holding out more difficult. With all highways and rail lines cut off, the city was encircled with Finnish forces supporting the Germans.

Food had to be carefully rationed with most eating one slice of bread a day causing widespread starvation. And it was one of the coldest winters on record. Many still worked to build arms to defeat the Germans despite the intense deprivations of both warmth and food. Everything that could be eaten –cats and dogs, animals from the city zoo, wallpaper paste, leather boiled to make an edible jelly–was used. Various plants, grasses, and even weeds were consumed to add vitamins. And, taking a page from the unfortunate Donner Party,  many started cannibalizing the dead as well. This was such a major issued that the police department had to create a special unit to handle this. Some supplies were able to be brought over Lake Ladoga, but the amounts were small and unable to alleviate the situation. Some evacuations of elderly and children were able to be done, but most starved or died. Thankfully by June 1943, Soviet forces were able to break the German blockade and establish a better supply line to Lake Ladoga.

This helped the inhabitants and with an oil pipeline and electricity being supplied as well during the siege, things were better than at the outset. Also, with spring there came the use of land to grow produce that would help many as well. Finally, by January 1944 the German Army was forced to retreat ending the siege. However, the death toll was staggering with at least one million dead. It would not be until the 1960’s when the population reached pre-siege levels of three million. Those who survived were all awarded the Order of Lenin. Today the city has fully recovered and there is no trace of this dark period in its history. It is a very popular tourist destination not only for Russians but others as well. The city is very spread out requiring the use of cars for even the shortest of destinations.

An old travel guide before 1918, advised people to pack warm clothing for the nights. While spring and summer days are often pleasant, cool nighttime temperatures required warm clothing. Raingear is recommended as well. As for the winter, bring lots of warm clothing Also, it advised people to make sure you knew there was a significant calendar change. Russia, until 1918, used the Julian calendar. And that meant you needed to subtract 13 days for the correct date in old Russia when you crossed the border. Christmas was not on December 25th, but on January 6. Today that is not a problem since Russia now uses the Gregorian, but the other advice is still sound. And to avoid getting into vodka challenges especially if it involves lots of caviar as well.

St. Petersburg, Russia. View from the visitor’s gallery at the Colonnade of the St. Isaac’s Cathedral.
2012
A.Savin via Wikimedia Commons

In history circles, there is a sort of a trivia game that is played over the city name. The city has had three names. It was St. Petersburg from 1703 to 1914. Because of its German sounding name, it was changed to Petrograd in 1914. Up until the Communist Revolution of 1918, the city was the cultural center as well as the capital of Russia. After that, the capital was moved to Moscow primarily to prevent any invasion that would take down the government. When Lenin died in 1924, the city was again renamed to Leningrad. After the fall of Communism, in 1991 the citizens decided in a referendum to restore the original name to St. Petersburg. So, the game is this: what is the real name of the old Russian capital? Is it St. Petersburg, Petrograd, or Leningrad? To make it tougher, sometimes a year is used: “What was the name of the former Russian capital in 1922 (or 1941)? The Jeopardy answer, if no year is specified, is all three.

 

Sources

“Siege of Leningrad | Nazi Germany, World War II, Blockade,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified September 1, 2025, accessed September 4, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/event/Siege-of-Leningrad.

“Siege of Leningrad Begins | September 8, 1941 | HISTORY,” HISTORY, last modified January 31, 2025, accessed September 4, 2025, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/september-8/siege-of-leningrad-begins.

Mack Dean, “Siege of Leningrad | World War 2 Facts,” World War 2 Facts, October 21, 2020, accessed September 4, 2025, https://www.worldwar2facts.org/siege-of-leningrad.html.

History

Mussolini Ousted as Italian Leader (25 July 1943)

On 25 Jul 1943 the Fascist Grand Council formerly voted Mussolini from power and was arrested later after meeting with King Victor Emmanuel III. So, what happened to the once all-powerful Duce? Let’s find out.

Benito Mussolini from the second edition of Adolf Dresler’s “Mussolini als Journalist” (1939)
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Italy Aligns with Germany

On 22 May 1939 Italy signed a treaty with Germany that allied both countries militarily and politically. Mussolini nicknamed this treaty, formally known as the Pact of Friendship and Alliance, as the Pact of Steel. The treaty committed Italy to support Germany if attacked or if it declared war. Mussolini believed the pact would provide defense from other Western nations and provide support for his ambitions in the Balkans and elsewhere. Italy was in desperate need of resources due to international sanctions in using mustard gas to conquer Ethiopia. It also lacked the industrial capability at that time for a sustained military conflict. Germany and Italy shared similar interests in believing Fascism was on the march. Italy, like Germany, sided with Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). A treaty of mutual interest in 1936 brought them closer together and paved the way for the Pact of Steel. It was also Mussolini who coined the term Axis regarding the countries that signed the treaty.

Mussolini had hoped both the British and French would give him concessions after the Munich Agreement of 1938, where both powers forced Czechoslovakia to hand over territory to Germany. There was none and Mussolini gave speeches laying out Italy’s desire to take territory in North Africa, France, a part of Switzerland, and Albania. He also threatened British control of the seas and of taking Gibraltar. In both London and Paris, such talk was seen as signaling his territorial ambitions. In 1938, Italy invaded and conquered Albania convincing the other powers of his territorial ambitions. The Pact of Steel in 1939 cemented the partnership between the two countries that had been going on informally. Not all Fascists in Italy agreed with aligning with Germany. Foreign Minister Count Galeazzo Ciano, married to Mussolini’s daughter Edda, became skeptical later as Germany failed to disclose the planned to invade Poland as required by the treaty. While Ciano and other Fascists believed war with Britain and France was inevitable as both powers were blocking their ambitions, they did not see it occurring for a few more years. They dreadfully miscalculated Hitler’s aims and ambitions.

World War II

Mussolini knew that Italy was not ready for war until 1942 (and the Pact of Steel said neither side was to enter war till 1943). Lacking the raw resources and industrial capability, they needed to import both coal and steel. Countries like Britain banned those raw materials, making it difficult to acquire. Knowing this, Britain and France did try to lure Mussolini away from Germany by offering those resources. And it may have worked as Mussolini was preparing to sign documents to that effect. German pressure on Mussolini though scuttled it. They sent coal by train over the Alps to him to strengthen their friendship. The Italian Army was large on paper but lacked modern transport and weapons leaving them unable to hold their own against a fully trained and battle-ready army. Since supplies were critical to Italy, it failed to prepare its merchant fleet for war and lost many ships that were enemy ports when war was declared. Mussolini was warned by his military advisors to wait until war production would be able arm his military for war. While Italy easily took Albania, the British routed them in North Africa, and the Greeks were able to stop an Italian invasion of their country. In both cases, Germany sent troops to accomplish what the Italians failed to do. They were successful in Yugoslavia since German troops were with them. And the only declared war on France when Germany had defeated them so they could take territory in the south including Corsica. Thanks to Italian occupation in France though, Jews were safe as Italy refused German demands to turn them over.

Rationing of food and other supplies took its toll on the population. Due to a reduced merchant fleet, supplies became more difficult to acquire and had to rely on Germany for a lot of it. Inflation set in as well making it hard for many to buy the supplies. The poor military situation only made it worse and support for Mussolini began to slip. The army was lightly armored, the air force and navy were at odds with each other, poor leadership in the upper levels that were coupled with ill defined goals. Additionally, Mussolini might decide to do things on a whim making it a chaotic situation. With the Allies taking Sicily, landing in the south, and dropping bombs on Rome, most people had enough of the war. Both King Victor Emmanuel III and members of the Fascist Grand Council wanted Italy out of the war. Mussolini had to go.

Mussolini Sacked

The Fascist Grand Council met on 24 July 1943-a meeting that would last till the next morning-to discuss what to do. Mussolini, according to various accounts, looked sick, tired, and felt the burden of the military defeats suffered by the Italian military. For some, it appeared he wanted a way out and he got it. The Grand Council voted to remove him from power and transfer some of his powers to the king. There was opposition, but the majority voted for his removal. His son-in-law, Count Galeazzo Ciano, voted for his removal as well. Mussolini seemed stunned and dazed by it. His supporters tried to rally him, but he seemed deflated. He left for his meeting with King Emmanuel and arrived unshaven and groggy. He was informed by the king that he was under arrest and that General Pietro Badoglio would be taking over as Prime Minister. The war was seen as lost, the King Emmanuel reportedly said. Mussolini did not resist and seemed to accept it. He was told his family would remain safe. He was whisked away and imprisoned.

The announcement of Mussolini’s downfall was greeted with a general sense of relief. It was hoped this would mean the end of the war. The Fascists did not stage any protests or marches over his removal and imprisonment. He was being held at La Maddalena and later removed to a safer location to prevent his being rescued. The new Italian government negotiated behind the scenes seeking an armistice that would lead to a peace treaty. For a moment Italians breathed a sigh of relief hoping the war would soon be over.

Aftermath

Hitler was furious at his removal and knew the Italians would sign an armistice. Several German battalions were sent into Italy despite objections from the new government. When the armistice was announced on 3 September 1943, Operation Asche was implemented. German troops seized control of northern Italy and marched on Rome. They also seized all its territory in the Balkans and France. Italian forces were told to disarm or be fired upon. Some resistance was done in Rome as the royal family fled with the government. Corsica, Calabria, and Sardinia were successfully defended by Italian troops and repelled German troops until the Americans arrived. The Germans quickly implemented their anti-Jewish policies. Hitler ordered Mussolini found and was rescued from imprisonment at Hotel Campo Imperatore atop Gran Sasso d’Italia mountain range on 12 September 1943. Italians in the north would have to wait until June 1944 to be liberated.

[This was rewritten for 2025 correcting spelling, punctuation, and brevity]

Sources

Hibbert et al., “Benito Mussolini | Biography, Definition, Facts, Rise, & Death,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified June 16, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benito-Mussolini.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Pact of Steel | Italy–Germany [1939] | Britannica,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified March 18, 2009, https://www.britannica.com/event/Pact-of-Steel.

HISTORY.com Editors, “Benito Mussolini Falls From Power | July 25, 1943 | HISTORY,” HISTORY, last modified May 27, 2025, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/july-25/mussolini-falls-from-power.

Helga, “Italy Between 1922-1945 – the Rule of Mussolini,” Life in Italy, last modified October 7, 2022, accessed July 24, 2025, https://lifeinitaly.com/italy-between-1922-1945-the-rule-of-mussolini/.

Warfare History Network and Blaine Taylor, “Mussolini’s Fall From Power – Warfare History Network,” Warfare History Network, last modified November 29, 2023, accessed July 24, 2025, https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/mussolinis-fall-from-power/.

“Axis Alliance in World War II,” Holocaust Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/axis-powers-in-world-war-ii.

Justin Demetri, “Italians in World War II,” Life in Italy, last modified October 10, 2024, https://lifeinitaly.com/italians-in-world-war-ii-2/.

Gerald Swick and Jim Heddlesten, “Italy in World War II,” HistoryNet, last modified March 30, 2016, https://www.historynet.com/italy-in-world-war-ii/.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Italian Campaign | Summary, Map, Significance, Date, & World War II,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified July 2, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Italian-Campaign.

Suggested Reading

Bosworth, R. J. B. (2006). Mussolini’s Italy: Life Under the Dictatorship, 1915-1945. Penguin Press HC.

Haynes, D. (2023). A brief history of Italy: Tracing the Renaissance, Unification, and the Lively Evolution of Art and Culture.

Hearder, H., & Morris, J. (2001). Italy: A Short History. Cambridge University Press.

Hibbert, C. (2008). Mussolini: The Rise and Fall of Il Duce. St. Martin’s Griffin.

Kertzer, D. I. (2015). The Pope and Mussolini: The Secret History of Pius XI and the Rise of Fascism in Europe. Random House Trade Paperbacks.

Moseley, R. (1999). Mussolini’s shadow: The Double Life of Count Galeazzo Ciano. Yale University Press.

Titanic News Channel is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com.

History

Remembering History: Night of the Long Knives (30 June 1934)

On 30 June 1934 Hitler purged his own party of members he feared would become his enemies. Why did this happen? Let’s dive in and find out.

The National Socialist German Workers Party (Nationalsozialistische deutsche Arbeiterpartei Or NSDAP) was formed in the early 1920’s by Adolf Hitler hoping to draw people away from Marxist groups that were attracting many followers. The NSDAP (later to be called simply Nazi) fused elements of Socialism with nationalism creating something similar to what Benito Mussolini did in Italy with Fascism. Both Fascists and Nazis believed in a strong central state, a single party and a strong leader, and that citizens serve the national will in all that they do. They both reject democracy as weak, disdain for civil liberties, and capitalism that seeks profit over that of the state. They agree with Communists and Socialists about the political structure of the state but disagree over nationalism, worker’s rights, and its private ownership. Fascists and Nazis both believe in nationalism as a cornerstone of their ideology, unlike Communists and Socialists who believe they have to be torn down.

Hitler’s party targeted those who felt betrayed by the stinging defeat of World War I. It meant the end of both the German Empire and Austria-Hungary. Austria would be reduced down to its present size of what Austria is today and no longer a major power in the world. On top of that, the hated Versailles Treaty of 1919 levied huge reparations on Germany and stripped her of land and its overseas territories. His party absorbed other parties, some more extreme, as well. Antisemitism would also be a major draw for this party. Many in Germany believed, or were convinced, that Jews had conspired to bring down what happened. Jews owned banks, newspaper and other key businesses were profiteers and grifters who betrayed the German people. It would become a major feature of the party in the years to come.

Inspired by Mussolini’s Black Shirts, Hitler created his own paramilitary called Sturmabteilung (Storm Troops) or SA or simply called Brown Shirts to be used to threaten and intimidate enemies of the party and Germany. It was composed in the early days with war veterans and those that had been members of the Free Corps (Freikorps) which had been formed to counter left wing groups. In 1923 under the leadership of General Erich Ludendorff there was the famous Beer Hall Putsch to seize control of the Bavarian State. It failed and Hitler was imprisoned. While in jail, he composed his seminal book that told the world what his beliefs were and what the Nazi Party would do. Mein Kampf would, when published, become popular reading. It still is today in many parts of the world influenced by elements of fascism and antisemitism.

1932 Berlin
SA-Propagandamarsch in Spandau
Bundesarchiv, B 145 Bild-P049500 / CC-BY-SA 3.0
German Federal Archives via Wikimedia Commons

The Nazi Party would continue to grow through the 1920’s and as economic conditions got worse, found many willing to hear about rebuilding Germany and tossing out the current ruling elites that had made a mess of things. Mussolini made the same type of appeal much earlier and was swept into power after his march on Rome where the king appointed him prime minister even though there had not been a vote to put his party into full power. The Nazi Party, though it used the SA to bully and intimidate, used the ballot box to gain seats in the Reichstag. By 1928, it had gained lots of members but only held 12 seats. Its support came primarily from those who had served in the war, the disillusioned, and many who felt Germany was on the wrong path. Despite its name of being a worker’s party, most industrial workers were not drawn to Nazis. Hitler was not worried about this as he was building a national movement that would draw people into counter those who feared Communism and Socialism. Nazis used posters, slogans, parades, and other things to convey their message to the masses, which was we are to hear to fix Germany and toss out the weak Weimar government.

By the late 1920’s and early 1930’s, both the Nazis and Communists were popular. Both sought to fix the problems but in strikingly different ways. The SA got more active and soon fights were breaking out in the streets, assassinations were occurring. All of this convinced many that a strong central figure was needed to end the chaos, which was what Hitler sought to achieve. The antisemitic leanings were downplayed in general elections but anyone who attended their meetings knew that hatred of Jews was deeply ingrained in its leadership. In the July 1932 elections they got 37% of the vote and 230 seats in the Reichstag. It was a great victory for Hitler, but the November elections saw their fortunes had dissipated. The Nazi Party lost seats (down to 196) while the Communists gained. The other conservative and moderate political parties did well but no one had a clear majority to govern leaving it without a government for a time. President Hindenburg had defeated Hitler who had run for the same position.

The reasons that the Nazis lost votes has been debated, but by this time the Germany economy seemed better, and the Weimar government looked better as a result. This stung the Nazi leadership because the last thing they wanted was Weimar to stay in power. Hitler and those that supported him worked hard to negotiate with the other conservative parties to gain their support. They appealed to the old military aristocracy, the industrialists, and other leaders they needed to get support from. They played up the fear that the Communists would gain power. Most of the other conservative parties were wary of Hitler and his Nazis but ultimately decided to join with him to create a majority so that government could be formed.

And on 30 January 1933, President Hindenburg appointed Hitler as chancellor. Hindenburg and the others who had allied with him thought  they could control him. That would prove to be a disastrous miscalculation on their part. Hitler moved quickly to solidify the power of the Nazi party. While technically a coalition government, they quickly began suppressing and abridging press freedoms and individual liberties. All those who opposed the Nazis now had the SA, now part of the government, being given police powers. Jews would be dismissed from government posts. Hitler convinced Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag, a clever move so that when elections would be held only his party would be seated. They quickly worked to suppress all other parties except the ones that had supported them.

By 1934 the Nazi’s had swept away the old order and through elections (which in many cases were fraudulent) got all the seats they needed to fill the Reichstag. Things looked good but there were some problems. Internal corruption was an issue but so was the issue of continued violence the SA was doing. The SA, like the Black Shirts, served a vital role but also tended to be more purist about their doctrines than most in the party were. The SA had swelled in size to 4.5 million making it a very large paramilitary organization. As revolutionaries know, the greatest threat is not from outsiders but from those inside who build powerful groups internally that might topple ?you. Stalin had purged most of the early revolutionaries because they wanted more radical ideas and threatened his power. Mussolini had issues. Now Hitler was facing it as well.

The German army also was worried. There was a fully armed paramilitary organization that ran parallel to it. That would inevitably cause friction, especially in times of war when you needed clear operational structures. The SS, by contrast, was both a bodyguard for Hitler and oversaw the administration of specific areas designated to them by Hitler. They did not act as a paramilitary organization. Also, the public began to complain as well. That seems odd in a dictatorship they would care about public opinion, but the Nazis knew if they lost support of the populace, it would be an even bigger issue to contend with. The violence of the SA was getting loud feedback from the local Nazi leaders. In short, it had to be curtailed. Some saw its leader Ernst Rohm as the German equivalent of the Roman Sejanus who had become very powerful under Emperor Tiberius and threatened his reign. Both Himmler and Goering played on this fear when trying to convince Hitler that its leader, Ernst Röhm, was planning a coup.

Photo of Ernst Roehm, probably taken in Munich (München), Germany (Weimar Republic) on 1 April, 1924 National Archives and Records Administration (NAID) 162122137 Public Domain

And so, on the night of 30 June 1934, called the Night of the Long Knives came about. Rohm and all the leaders of the SA were arrested and ultimately executed (often brutally). Nazis took advantage of this event to also to eliminate other political opponents including former chancellor Kurt von Schleicher.

Aftermath

The SA was downsized and a new leader, Viktor Lutze, was appointed as Stabschef (the equivalent of chief of staff) to the SA. The SA would continue to be used to go after those opposing Hitler and later the Jews. The SA was used in Kristallnacht in November 1938 to destroy over 7,500 glass storefronts on Jewish shops and businesses along with ransacking Jewish homes. The also helped destroy nearly all the Jewish synagogues (the only ones that were spared were ones next to important buildings-they could be ransacked but not burned). The SA also carried out mass beatings of Jews and arrested many who were taken to concentration camps. They became overshadowed by the SS that now handled policing and security. By

1939 it had lost significance in the Nazi Party. It was converted into a training school for the armed forces. Once war began, it lost its members to the Wehrmacht (German armed forces). It continued to exist though and when the SS and the Foreign Office had major issues, he appointed SA members to diplomatic posts to counter the SS. When Lutze died in a car accident in 1943, the new leader tried to smooth out the tensions between the SS and the SA. The SA would formally cease to exist when the war ended in 1945.

Sources

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Night of the Long Knives | Date, Victims, Summary, & Facts,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified March 25, 2009, https://www.britannica.com/event/Night-of-the-Long-Knives.

“Hitler Purges Members of His Own Nazi Party in Night of the Long Knives,” last modified May 27, 2025, accessed June 30, 2025, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/june-30/night-of-the-long-knives.

“Röhm Purge,” https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/roehm-purge.

The SA. (n.d.). https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-sa

Suggested Reading

Allen, W. S. (1984). The Nazi seizure of power: The Experience of a Single German Town, 1922-1945. Franklin Watts.

Engelmann, B. (1986). In Hitler’s Germany: Daily Life in the Third Reich. Pantheon.

Shirer, W. L. (2011). The rise and fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany. Simon and Schuster.

Titanic News Channel is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com.