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History

Remembering History: Battle of Midway (3-7 June 1942)

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Midway Atoll, 24 November 1941
Public Domain (Official U.S. Navy photo)

Background

June 1942 saw the Empire of Japan dominate in Asia ruling a sizable empire. It began in the late 19th century when it seized Formosa (Taiwan) in 1895. The conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War (1905-1905) saw it acquire Korea. It would take Manchuria (renamed Manchukuo) in 1931. China was invaded in 1937 and seized the key cities of Shanghai, Nanking, and Peking. When France fell to Germany in 1940, Japan invaded to prevent it being used to supply China. Vichy France made a deal with Japan to keep it neutral but allow it within their sphere of power. Japan attacked and conquered Hong Kong after heavy fighting on Christmas Day 1941. Fortress Singapore, so named because of its impressive frontal defense, was defeated when the Japanese army came from the lightly defended rear (what was believed to be an impassable jungle) and conquered it on 15 Feb 1942. The Dutch East Indies (Indonesia today) were conquered by March 1942 and The Philippines in May.  Japan, supported by local independence groups, also invaded Burma in 1941 and would finish in April 1942. Japan would use Burma to attack British held India. The Japanese began attacking northern Australia to prevent it from being used as a staging area.

Japan had succeeded in tossing out the imperial powers and absorbing them into its own empire. The only major power they were concerned with was the United States and the attack on 7 December 1941 had destroyed many of their battleships. Considered a success by the Japanese, they had hoped it would force the Americans to stay out of the conflict. However, the U.S. desire to fight back surprised them. The Doolittle Raid of 18 April 1942 where American bombers bombed Tokyo (they flew off aircraft carriers to accomplish this) stunned the Japanese government. And the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942 made them realize they had to defeat the American fleet. They decided to draw out the American fleet for a battle near Midway Island for a decisive battle. They saw themselves as the masters of the Pacific; the Battle of Midway would change that forever.

The Broken Japanese Code

A special naval intelligence unit called HYPO had broken it in March resulting in much of the plan becoming known to the U.S. They learned that the attack in Alaska was a feint to draw naval forces away from being used at Midway. They also learned that behind the Japanese carrier strike force was a large destroyer force sailing to meet them and deliver a decisive blow to any remaining U.S. ships after the attack on Midway. The American task force assembled were three aircraft carriers– Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown – seven heavy cruisers, 1 light cruiser, 15 destroyers, and 16 submarines. The Yorktown had to be quickly patched up after its recent encounter with the Japanese and needed some new aircraft and pilots. Admiral William Halsey was put in charge but due to illness had to be replaced by Rear Admiral Raymond Spruance. Spruance would command the Enterprise and Hornet along with her support vessels. Rear Admiral Frank Fletcher was in command of Yorktown.

The Japanese committed four carriers, 2 battleships, 2 heavy cruisers and 1 light cruiser, 12 destroyers, 13 submarines, and 16 floatplanes. Their support force were 4 heavy cruisers, 2 destroyers, and 12 floatplanes. The U.S. had 233 carrier-based aircraft to the Japanese 248. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, who had planned the attack on Pearl Harbor, designed the complex Midway battle. Part of his plan involved dispersing his forces so that they would not be readily seen by the Americans. He also believed he would be facing only two carriers, the Enterprise and Hornet, because th?e Yorktown had been badly damaged at the Battle of Coral Sea. However, the Americans had learned most of the plan from the decoded transmissions. And the planned dispersal proved more difficult as it required the support ships to keep up with them, which proved to be more difficult than originally thought.

The Battle

On 4 June 1942, Admiral Nagumo aboard the carrier Akagi launched the initial air attack on Midway composed of dive and torpedo bombers escorted by Zeroes. PBYs launched that morning from Midway would sight two Japanese carriers and radar picked up incoming Japanese fighters. Midway sent up unescorted bombers to delay the attack while the fighters remained behind to defend Midway. Midway came under heavy attack and its air interceptors took a heavy beating fighting the Japanese. Anti-aircraft fire from ground personnel proved to be more precise. Midway took a beating but was still functional and could launch planes.

Meanwhile scouting reports flying ahead of the American carriers placed the Japanese carriers at the extreme range for air attack. Making matters more difficult was the fact that Japanese scout planes had sighted the American fleet. Despite the extreme range, Spruance ordered the planes to be launched and increased the speed of the task force to close the distance. The torpedo squadrons left first but due to mechanical problems in launching the dive-bombers, had to fly unescorted. They would reach the Japanese and be quickly shot out of the sky by Japanese Zeroes and anti-aircraft fire. Not one torpedo launched did any serious damage.

The pilots of the U.S. Navy Torpedo Squadron 8 (VT-8) aboard the aircraft carrier USS Hornet (CV-8), circa mid-May 1942, shortly before battle of Midway. They flew unescorted by fighters to attack the Japanese aircraft carriers. The slow moving planes were no match for the fast Zeroes that attacked them. Not one torpedo they launched did any damage. However because of their bravery, the Zeroes were out of position when the American dive-bombers arrived allowing them to bomb the Japanese carriers. Ensign George Gay was the only survivor.
Photo: May 1942
Source: Naval History and Heritage Command, digital ID NH 93595
Public Domain

Admiral Nagumo had a problem. His planes returned from Midway and were being re-armed for the next bombing run. But he had just gotten a report that the American navy was in the area. Its exact composition was unknown. So, he ordered a change in the ordnance for the attack planes. Instead of attacking land-based targets they would arm to destroy ships. The result was there a lot of ordnance out on the deck on the carriers where this was being done. With the Japanese combat air patrol out of position having dealt with the torpedo squadrons they were not able to intercept the next wave of attack. American dive-bomber squadrons from Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown would seemingly arrive nearly at the same time. It was one of the greatest coincidences in military history. Three Japanese carriers–Akagi, Kaga, and Soryu–would be sunk that day. The surviving carrier Hiryu counter-attacked by sending our air squadrons to attack any American carrier they could find. They found Yorktown and dropped three bombs heavily damaging the ship but not sinking it. Admiral Fletcher moved over to cruiser Astoria while it was being repaired. A second air attack an hour later would further damage Yorktown. She would later sink when being towed on 6 June by a torpedo fired by a Japanese submarine, which also sank the destroyer Hamman.

The Japanese believed they had turned the tide and would be able to go on with the Midway plan. They knew a huge fleet of destroyers and support craft was on the way. However, the Hiryu was found late in the afternoon. An air attack by Enterprise and Yorktown bombers resulted in four or possibly five bombs seriously crippling her. The fires prevented any planes taking off or landing. The crew would evacuate and later Hiryu would sink. Spruance, not wanting to risk exposure to Japanese forces and wanting to protect Midway, would retire to the west. Admiral Yamamoto still wanted to invade Midway and proceeded on course. Had Spruance not changed course, the remaining two carriers of the American fleet would have been exposed to Yamamoto’s destroyers. Spruance would go after the stragglers. Yamamoto ultimately ordered the fleet back to Japan not knowing the full composition of the American forces that might be pursuing.

The U.S. Navy lost 1 carrier, 1 destroyer, 150 aircraft and 307 killed. Many of those killed were from the torpedo squadrons that lost 80% or more of their pilots. The Japanese lost 4 carriers, 1 heavy cruiser, 248 aircraft and 3,057 killed. It was a major victory for the U.S., but most Japanese would never learn the full details until after the war was over. The survivors of the sunken carriers and those aboard the ships that survived would be quarantined or sent on duty assignments far away from home. None of the senior officers would face any serious repercussions. Only those at the very top were informed as to what really happened. Only the Emperor and the top naval officers knew the full details. The public was told it was a great victory, and the Imperial Japanese Army believed the navy was in good condition. However, Admiral Yamamoto and the other senior leaders of the Japanese Navy knew the truth. The United States would soon come out stronger than it had been before the attack on Pearl Harbor.

For the United States it would prove the value of intelligence gathering and codebreaking. It would continue to be an important part of the war effort and would yield even more useful information down the road with dire consequences for Admiral Yamamoto. The code breaking led directly to his plane being shot down in 1943 as payback for Pearl Harbor.

(Please note this is a very condensed description of the Battle of Midway and had a lot more stages in it than reflected in this writing).

Sources

“Battle of Midway.” Naval History and Heritage Command. Last modified January 29, 2026. Accessed June 3, 2026. https://www.history.navy.mil/browse-by-topic/wars-conflicts-and-operations/world-war-ii/1942/midway.html.

“Battle of Midway.” History.Com. Last modified March 27, 2025. Accessed June 3, 2026. https://www.history.com/articles/battle-of-midway.

“The Battle of Midway.” The National WWII Museum. Last modified June 22, 2017. Accessed June 3, 2026. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/battle-midway.

Holzwarth, Larry. “How The Battle of Midway Changed the Pacific War.” History Collection. Last modified January 30, 2025. Accessed June 3, 2026. https://historycollection.com/how-the-battle-of-midway-changed-the-pacific-war/.

Videos

The Federal File. “Destination Point Luck Voices From Midway – Battle of Midway WWII Documentary.” Video. YouTube, April 24, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vqpk4Rmfbm8.

HISTORY. “Battle of Midway Tactical Overview – World War II | History.” Video. YouTube, June 1, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kipF5zoCGAk.

PeriscopeFilm. “JOHN FORD’S BATTLE OF MIDWAY 1942 WWII U.S. NAVY FILM  *RESTORED VERSION* 21344.” Video. YouTube, May 21, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jr4YgpKU8ak.

WW2 Tales. “Battle of Midway From the Japanese Perspective.” Video. YouTube, September 30, 2025. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W5VjfbGaBo0.

Suggested Reading & Movies

[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]

Books

Movies & Documentaries

“Midway Is East.” Archive.org, 1952, archive.org/details/VAS_04_Midway_Is_East. This is episode 4 from the excellent Victory at Sea series which was shown in 1952-1953. Using archived footage along with excellent music, the series conveyed the scope of naval warfare in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Watch the entire series if you can.

“The Battle of Midway (Short 1942) ? 6.1 | Documentary, Short, War.” IMDb, 14 Sept. 1942, www.imdb.com/title/tt0034498. This is a documentary made in 1942 right after the battle with John Ford directing. It uses actual footage and uses actors to voice over parts of accounts of the sailors and aviators that participated. It is available (f0r free) from some streaming services like Tubi. You can also view it on YouTube (the version linked here is the colorized version, not the original Black & White).

The Federal File. “Destination Point Luck Voices From Midway – Battle of Midway WWII Documentary.” YouTube, 24 Apr. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vqpk4Rmfbm8.

Midway. Directed by Jack Smight, The Mirisch Corporation, Universal Pictures, 1976. This 1976 movie starring Charlton Heston uses old stock footage and pushes the real historical figures in the background while pushing a fictional story line. While entertaining, many will find it lacking in a lot of real historical depth. The subplot involving Heston’s son in the movie makes it more of a soap opera at times. Worth watching to see some great actors but not so much if you are looking for something that will relate the real story of the battle.

Midway. Directed by Roland Emmerich, Summit Entertainment and others, 2019. This 2019 version significantly was better in terms of better effects and depicting events leading up and the Battle of Midway itself. Most of the characters are based on historical ones. Reviews were mixed on this one. Some thought it was a decent movie, but the story itself was not compelling. Rotten Tomatoes has it as 42% like it and IMDB users rate it as 6.7. It is certainly more historically accurate and shows the Japanese side (with actual Japanese actors speaking Japanese).

History

Remembering History: German & Italy Sign Pact of Steel (22 May 1939)

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The signing of the Pact of Steel on 22 May 1939 in Berlin
Photographer unknown
Public Domain/WIkimedia Commons

On 22 May 1939, Germany and Italy signed the Pact of Friendship and Alliance that became known later as the Pact of Steel. This began the formal military and political alliance between the two countries. Initially Japan was to be part of the agreement but there was disagreement on the focus of the pact. Germany and Italy wanted it aimed at the British Empire and France, while Japan wanted the Soviet Union to be the focus. The agreement was signed without Japan but would later join in September 1940.

The agreement brought together two countries that opposed each other in World War I. It also required each country to come to the aid of the other if it were in armed conflict with another nation. Neither party could make peace without the agreement of the other. One of the assumptions of the agreement was that war would start in three years at the latest. Italy needed the time to get its war production into high gear. The agreement was for ten years but there was some concern within the Italian government the agreement would suppress Italian autonomy. The agreement was still signed despite these objections, which also came from Mussolini’s son-in-law, Galeazzo Ciano, who was the Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Hitler, however, would soon declare his intentions of invading Poland. Mussolini was not happy he was not consulted on this, nor about the Molotov-Ribbentrop Agreement. Italian forces did not commit fully to war until June 1940 when German forces had defeated British and French forces with lightning speed. Italy seized Nice as its prize. Other countries it tried to invade proved more difficult. Greek partisans brought the Italian force to a halt. Germany would intervene to help there and in Yugoslavia where Italian troops also pushed back by partisans. A disastrous attack on British Egypt from Italian Libya required German assistance as well. The economic consequences of the war were bad for most Italians generating widespread resentment that would lead one day to Mussolini’s fall from power in 1943.

Nations of the Pact of Friendship and Alliance (Pact of Steel)

  • Germany (1939)
  • Italy (1939
  • Japan (1940)

Nations That Joined the Axis Powers

  • Hungary (1940)
  • Romania (1940)
  • Slovakia (1940)
  • Bulgaria (1941)
  • Yugoslavia (1941)
  • Croatia (1941)
  • Finland (1941)

Sources

“The Pact of Steel Is Signed; the Axis Is Formed.” HISTORY.Com. Last modified January 31, 2025. Accessed May 22, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/may-22/the-pact-of-steel-is-signed-the-axis-is-formed.

“The ‘Pact of Steel’: The Signing of The German-Italian Military Alliance in The New Reich Chancellery (May 22, 1939).” German History in Documents and Images. Accessed May 22, 2026. https://germanhistorydocs.org/en/nazi-germany-1933-1945/the-pact-of-steel-the-signing-of-the-german-italian-military-alliance-in-the-new-reich-chancellery-may-22-1939.

“Axis Alliance in World War II | Holocaust Encyclopedia.” Holocaust Encyclopedia. Accessed May 22, 2026. https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/axis-powers-in-world-war-ii.

“The Pact of Steel – the Pact of Friendship and Alliance Between Germany and Italy, May 22, 1939.” Historical Resources About the Second World War. Last modified September 10, 2008. Accessed May 22, 2026. https://historicalresources.wordpress.com/2008/09/10/the-pact-of-steel-the-pact-of-friendship-and-alliance-between-germany-and-italy-may-22-1939/.

 

History

Remembering History: Hitler Commits Suicide (30 April 1945

U.S. Army newspaper Stars and Stripes announcing Hitler’s death
2 May 1945
Original source: U.S. Army
Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

Adolf Hitler, the leader and founder of the 1,000 Reich, committed suicide along with his wife Eva Braun. His death would end the war in Europe.

Since the defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, it had become increasingly apparent that Allied forces had turned the tide. Germany had lost North Africa, Italy had been liberated, and Allied troops were on German soil. The capture and execution of Benito Mussolini also weighed on Hitler’s mind in his final days in the underground bunker. Since learning the war was lost with Soviet troops now in Berlin, he had become more erratic.

Hermann Goering, head of the Luftwaffe and Hitler’s designated successor, tried to take over but was denounced, arrested, and stripped of his powers. Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, had entered into secret negotiations with the Allies via Sweden. Hitler had considered him one of his most loyal subjects, but when the BBC announced the negotiations, he too was denounced, stripped of his powers, and ordered arrested. Both would commit suicide later; Himmler not long after he was caught and Goering the night before his scheduled execution for war crimes.

Most of Hitler’s aides and lieutenants had left except for General Krebs, Martin Bormann, and Joseph Goebbels. Albert Speer had been ordered to carry out a scorched earth policy in Berlin but declined to do it. Hitler believed Germany was unworthy and allowed themselves to be defeated. In the early hours of April 29, 1945, Hitler married his long-time mistress, Eva Braun. He dictated his will and political testament. The will was short while the testament laid out a defense of his life and actions taken for Germany. He also appointed those to lead after his death.

On the afternoon of April 30, 1945, Hitler shot himself in the head (though some argue he took poison in case he survived) while Eva took poison. He ordered both bodies be burned in the Chancellery Garden. Goebbels transmitted the message to Admiral Karl Doenitz that he had been appointed president by Hitler. Goebbels and his wife would take their own lives later but would first kill their children with cyanide. His death was announced on May 1, 1945, by Hamburg Radio. The surrender of German troops in Italy and elsewhere would begin thereafter and all German forces had surrendered by May 5, 1945. Celebrations broke out after his death and later the full capitulation of German forces. The war in Europe was over but the war against Japan would continue for several more months.

Sources
Adolf Hitler Commits Suicide in His Underground Bunker | April 30, 1945 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified May 28, 2025. Accessed April 29, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/april-30/adolf-hitler-commits-suicide.

Bullock, Allan. “Adolf Hitler.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified April 29, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Adolf-Hitler/World-War-II.

Huxen, Keith. “The Death of Adolf Hitler.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. Last modified March 29, 2020. Accessed April 29, 2026. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/death-of-adolf-hitler.

Videos

HistoryChannel. “May 1, 1945: BBC Radio Announcement of Adolf Hitler’s Death.” Video. YouTube, November 7, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=btHJYt5YE9s.

Release – Topic. “Death of Hitler: German Announcement, 8 May 1945.” Video. YouTube, November 11, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6U_5cCoZvM.

Suggested Reading

Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.

 Ambrose, Stephen E. Band of Brothers: E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler’s Eagle’s Nest. Simon and Schuster, 2017.

Ambrose, Stephen, and C. L. Sulzberger. American Heritage History of World War II. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform, 2016.

———. Citizen Soldiers: The U.S. Army from the Normandy Beaches to the Bulge to the Surrender of Germany June 7, 1944, to May 7, 1945. Simon and Schuster, 2013.

———. D-Day: June 6, 1944: The Climactic Battle of World War II. Simon & Schuster, 1994.

Gilbert, Martin The Second World War: A Complete History (Elsevier, 2004).

Hanson, Victor Davis. The Second World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won. Basic Books, 2017.

Keegan, John. The Second World War. Penguin Books, 2005.

Snyder, Louis Leo. Encyclopedia of the Third Reich. 1976. Reprint, New York, NY, United States of America: Marlowe & Company, 1989.

History

Remembering History: Mussolini Executed by Italian Partisans (28 April 1945)

 

Benito Mussolini
Public Domain

Benito Mussolini, who once ruled Italy and created Fascism, was executed by Italian partisans while attempting to flee Italy.

Benito Mussolini started out as Communist, became dissatisfied with it, and conceived a new ideology called Fascism that fused elements of Communism with Nationalism. Italy after World War I was economically suffering. It had supported the Allies and was promised territory but got nothing. Mostly agrarian based with only a few centers of large industry, Italy was considered backward by European standards. Mussolini sought to change this by making people believe in Italy again. Being an ardent Communist and editing one of Italy’s prominent Communist newspapers, he originally believed in its principles but World War I disillusioned him. He crafted a new ideology, Fascism, that incorporated elements of both Communism and Nationalism, that would bring about a better nation.

His movement garnered many supporters eager to make Italy a better and stronger nation. After King Emmanuel III dissolved parliament in 1921, Mussolini used this to demand more power. His party had gained seats and with uniformed members out on the streets, highly visible as well. They gained power in cities, and the Black Shirts went after Communists and Socialists destroying their offices. In 1922, King Emmanuel was faced with major problems of civil unrest. Calling out the army did little good and the Fascists controlled many municipalities. A march on Rome brought Mussolini and thousands to Rome demanding he be put into power. To avoid more unrest, King Emmanuel appointed him as Prime Minister and would rule Italy from 1923-1943.

Fascism, like Communism, disdained democracy as weak and governed as a one-party state where dissent was limited. Dissidents were imprisoned or executed depending on the severity of their actions. All media–print, radio, and movies–had to reflect the views of the government. Journalists had to belong to a national organization that would bound them to support Mussolini. Every aspect of life in Italy came under its control as Mussolini envisioned it would. The Catholic Boy Scouts were dissolved and replaced by a Fascist one called Opera Nazionale Balilla and all young boys were encouraged to join but it became mandatory in 1937. Much of what the Fascists did in Italy would become the model for Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party in Germany. Though Mussolini at first disdained Hitler, they eventually became friends. Both believed that Fascism was on the march and would replace the old order of Europe. The Spanish Civil War of 1936 saw both Hitler and Mussolini support General Francisco Franco against the Communist inspired government backed by Moscow.

Mussolini seized Ethiopia in 1935 sparking world-wide outrage over the use of mustard gas. Hitler backed him and both countries would exit the League of Nations in 1937. With the signing of the Pact of Steel in 1939, Mussolini had tied Italy to Germany’s war aims. Italy faced problems building up its military. It sorely lacked the industrial capability to build its own munitions, ships, and other necessities. Because of boycotts and refusals to sell resources from other countries, Italy became reliant on Germany for them. Germany also put pressure on Italy to adopt its policies about Jews and its eugenics policies. Scholars disagree on whether Mussolini was truly antisemitic or indifferent. He enacted some laws to satisfy them, but Germany was unhappy since they were considered lax by their standards. Only foreign-born Jews living in Italy would be deported. Jews in Italy and its territories faced no deportations until the Germans took control in 1943.

The signing of the Pact of Steel on 22 May 1939 in Berlin
Photographer unknown
Public Domain/WIkimedia Commons

World War II did not go well for Italy. From losing battles and needing German assistance in Greece and North Africa, it began to wear thin. Inflation and rationing caused unrest; Allied bombings of Rome and other places brought it home. The invasion of Sicily in 1943 and later southern Italy showed that the war was lost. Disillusionment with Mussolini was now louder resulting in the Fascist Grand Council, with the support of King Emmanuel, ousting Mussolini and starting negotiations to end the war. The Germans were furious and Mussolini, being held at Hotel Campo Imperatore on a remote mountain top, was rescued. Germany would invade and take control of Italy and its territories. Mussolini was put in charge of an Italian puppet state and would execute many who had removed him from power, including his son-in-law Count Galeazzo Ciano.

By April 1945 with increased partisan attacks and Allied troops making their way towards Milan, Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci fled inside German transports heading north near the Swiss border on April 27. Mussolini had hoped to flee to Spain where he hoped Franco would give him sanctuary. Unfortunately, partisans stopped the German transports on. After exchanging gunfire and lengthy negotiations, the partisans were allowed to search for Italians in the transports. Mussolini had put on a Wehrmacht noncommissioned officers coat and a helmet but was recognized. He, his mistress, and about fifty other Italians with him (some were wives and children) were arrested. Mussolini was taken to Dongo on Lake Como, interrogated and then put into a room with others who had been captured with him. He made a statement critical of Hitler and saying Stalin was the victor. He also signed a statement he had not been ill-treated.

The following day he, Clara, and others with him were shot and killed. Contradictory statements by different people over the years has made it difficult to pinpoint exactly who gave the order. Many of the partisans were aligned with Communist groups backed by Moscow, which used a radio beamed from Moscow (Radio Milano-Libertà) for Italians to announce his arrest. So many believe it was in the chain of command within those groups that ordered Mussolini’s execution. There are also different accounts as to what happened during the actual execution. They were executed with several bullets in their chests. The bodies were taken to the Piazzale Loreto in Milan and dumped there for all to see. People threw vegetables, spat on them, urinated, kicked the famous head of Mussolini, and even shot more bullets into their bodies. By the time American troops arrived, the scene was out of control. The bodies were taken to a half-built service station and hung upside down for all to see. The famous photograph was distributed showing to the world that the Duce was dead.

Piazzale Loreto, 29 April 1945, the displayed bodies of executed Italian fascists. From left to right, Nicola Bombacci, Benito Mussolini, Claretta Petacci, Alessandro Pavolini, Achille Starace
Photo: Vincenzo Carrese (1910–1981)
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

His body, first buried in an unmarked grave then stolen, recovered, and then hidden in a monastery, is now at the family crypt in Predappio in Romagna.

Sources

“Benito Mussolini: Children, Death & World War II – HISTORY | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified June 30, 2025. https://www.history.com/articles/benito-mussolini.

Citno, Robert PhD. “Death of the Duce, Benito Mussolini.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. Last modified April 27, 2020. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/death-of-benito-mussolini.

Deac, Wil. “How Did Benito Mussolini Die? The Story Behind Il Duce’s Last Moments.” Warfare History Network. Last modified March 13, 2024. https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/how-did-benito-mussolini-die-the-story-behind-il-duces-last-moments/.

Foot, John. “Benito Mussolini.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified April 24, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benito-Mussolini.

“Mussolini, Mistress Executed by Firing Squad – UPI Archives.” UPI, April 29, 1945. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1945/04/29/Mussolini-mistress-executed-by-firing-squad/7511360114334/.

Videos

CriticalPast. “Dead Body of Benito Mussolini Lay on a Street of the Village Giulino Di Mezzegra …HD Stock Footage.” Video. YouTube, April 26, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DsnDmdVJtPE.

History Comes to Life. “Mussolini Dead, 1945 | Restored News Footage.” Video. YouTube, August 2, 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mV7Cp9v13xI.

History

Fascinating History: Hitler Learns War Is Lost (22 April 1945)

July 1947 photo of the rear entrance to the Führerbunker in the garden of the Reich Chancellery.
German Federal Archives, Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-V04744 / CC-BY-SA 3.0

The defeat of German forces at the Battle of the Bulge in December 1945 ended any serious attempt by German forces to launch any further major military campaigns. In March 1945 American forces captured the Ludendorff Bridge intact allowing them to enter Germany over the Rhine. Meanwhile Soviet forces were pushing in from the East and closing in on Berlin. Due to Allied air attacks on Berlin, Hitler and his staff relocated from the Reich Chancellery to the Fuhrerbunker. This underground complex served as the command center for the Third Reich in the last months of its existence.

Hitler had remained inside this complex from the beginning of January 1945 only briefly coming up on April 20, his 56th birthday, to award the Iron Cross to Hitler Youth boys. On April 22, 1945, Soviet troops began entering Berlin suburbs meeting no resistance. When informed, Hitler was enraged and denounced the army for failing him and Germany. He stated that he knew the war was lost and despite being offered a way to flee south, decided to stay. Hermann Goering, his once designated successor, now would try to seize power under a 1941 decree giving him the power believing Hitler had incapacitated himself from power. It failed and he was forced to resign and put under house arrest. Hitler would later expel him from the Nazi Party. Heinrich Himmler was also trying to negotiate with the Allies via Sweden. When the BBC reported on April 28 that this was going on, Hitler was stunned as he considered Himmler one of his most loyal persons serving under him. He ordered Himmler’s aide in the bunker, who had been captured trying to desert, to be court-martialed and shot. He ordered Himmler’s arrest, expelled him from the Nazi party, and stripped him of all his titles. The once invincible Third Reich was in its last days.

Sources

“Hitler Admits Defeat | April 22, 1945 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified February 18, 2025. Accessed April 21, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/april-22/hitler-admits-defeat.

Evans, Richard J. “Bitter End: Hitler’s Downfall and the End of the War and the Third Reich.” HistoryExtra. Last modified October 18, 2024. Accessed April 21, 2026. https://www.historyextra.com/period/second-world-war/adolf-hitler-downfall-ww2-bunker/.

Knapp, Wilfrid F. “Adolf Hitler.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified April 21, 2026. Accessed April 21, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Adolf-Hitler.

Milligan, Mark. “Führerbunker – Hitler’ Last Bunker.” HeritageDaily – Archaeology News. Last modified March 22, 2022. Accessed April 21, 2026. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2021/03/fuhrerbunker-hitlers-last-bunker/137885.

Documentaries & Videos

History Inside. “The Führerbunker After 1945 — What Really Happened?” Video. YouTube, November 24, 2025. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BwEaeH0nD8c.

Suggested Reading

[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]

Allen, William Sheridan. The Nazi Seizure of Power: The Experience of a Single German Town, 1922-1945, Revised Edition. Echo Point Books & Media, 2014.

Gilbert, Martin The Second World War: A Complete History (Elsevier, 2004).

Hanson, Victor Davis. The Second World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won. Basic Books, 2017.

Keegan, John. The Second World War. Penguin Books, 2005.

Shirer, William L. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany. Simon and Schuster, 2011.

[This has been rewritten from 2025 and new sources added.]

History

Battle of the Bulge Begins (16 December 1944)

This photo from a captured Nazi shows German troops rushing across a Belgian road blocked with vehicles and armor during the enemy attack against the American Army which began Dec. 16th, 1944.
Public Domain via U.S. National Archives

By December 1944 it had become clear to the German military and civilian leadership that that they would not be able to thwart a Soviet invasion without first ending the war in the West. Hitler, who had assumed direct control of the military in 1941, ordered a winter offensive that would deny the Allies the use of Antwerp’s port and to split the Allied lines. It was believed that if they achieved these aims it would force the British and Americans to seek a cease fire and a peace treaty. This then would free up the Wehrmacht to concentrate all its forces to defeat the expected Soviet invasion.

The Germans used 250,000 soldiers, 14 infantry divisions, and five panzer divisions in its initial assault on 16 December 1944. They attacked early in the morning on the weakest part of the Allied line, an 80 mile poorly defended stretch that was mainly hilly and a woody forest as well. The Allied leadership believed the Germans would not be able to traverse the Ardennes and therefore did not consider it a location for a German offensive. This was the same unfortunate thinking that doomed Singapore. The British concentrated all their forces to repel a frontal assault and left the rear-mainly jungle-lightly protected since they did not believe the Japanese would traverse that difficult terrain to attack. Unfortunately for the British, that is what the Japanese did and captured Singapore.

The Germans threw 250,000 soldiers into the initial assault, 14 German infantry divisions guarded by five panzer divisions-against a mere 80,000 Americans. Their assault came in early morning at the weakest part of the Allied line, an 80-mile poorly protected stretch of hilly, woody forest (the Allies simply believed the Ardennes too difficult to traverse, and therefore an unlikely location for a German offensive). Between the vulnerability of the thin, isolated American units and the thick fog that prevented Allied air cover from discovering German movement, the Germans were able to push the Americans into retreat. While some Allied troops were taken prisoner, some were not so fortunate. The following day in Malmedy, Belgium, a group of Americans from the 285th Field Artillery Observation Battalion were captured and rounded up in a field. They had been captured by the 1st SS Leibstandarte “Adolf Hitler” Division under SS Obersturmbahnführer (Lieutenant Colonel) Joachim “Jochen” Peiper.

The American troops were not front- line troops but were in a convoy when captured. They were taken to a field and with their arms raised, were fired on by German machine gunners. After that was over, SS soldiers shot the wounded and those groaning. Of the 113 Americans captured, 84 were dead. Those that survived feigned death. A Belgian widow, who witnessed the massacre, was also killed. Other Belgians in the area also saw it as well. Since the SS routinely did this, they had no reason to conceal it and moved on. News of the atrocity would spread fast from the survivors to the fighting troops in the area.

Six weeks of battle would result and the besieged troops in the surrounded town of Bastogne refused to give in. When asked to surrender, Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe answered with famous “NUTS” reply. The U.S. 3rd Army drive to relieve Bastogne has become legend. Over 600,00o troops were involved making it the largest battle ever fought by the US Army in history.

Despite the intense cold, the Allied lines did not break and ultimately the Germans were forced back to Germany. Hitler’s gamble failed but it did upset the Allied war preparations causing a lot of damage. However tactically the German counteroffensive failed. Germany lost 120,000 men and material stores it could not replace easily. The Allies suffered 75,000 casualties but Germany no longer had the ability to put up a prolonged resistance to the renewed Allied offensive. German troops and their leaders knew that they lacked the ability to turn the tide and hopes for an end to the war were dashed for good. When the combat casualties of American troops was counted after the war, ten percent of the total casualties came to American troops at the Battle of the Bulge.

Sources

“Battle of the Bulge.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified December 9, 2025. Accessed December 16, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Bulge.

The-Battle-Of-The-Bulge. “Battle of the Bulge: The Largest WW2 Battle.” Last modified March 13, 2025. Accessed December 16, 2025. https://the-battle-of-the-bulge.com/.

“Battle of the Bulge | the United States Army.” Battle of the Bulge | the United States Army. Accessed December 16, 2025. https://www.army.mil/botb/.

“Battle of the Bulge – Definition, Dates & Who Won.” HISTORY. Last modified May 27, 2025. Accessed December 16, 2025. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/december-16/battle-of-the-bulge.

Huxen, Keith. “The Battle of the Bulge.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. Last modified December 17, 2019. Accessed December 16, 2025. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/battle-of-the-bulge.

Suggested Reading

Ambrose, Stephen E. Band of Brothers: E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler’s Eagle’s Nest. Simon and Schuster, 2017.

Ambrose, Stephen, and C. L. Sulzberger. American Heritage History of World War II. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform, 2016.

———. Citizen Soldiers: The U.S. Army from the Normandy Beaches to the Bulge to the Surrender of Germany June 7, 1944, to May 7, 1945. Simon and Schuster, 2013.

———. D-Day: June 6, 1944: The Climactic Battle of World War II. Simon & Schuster, 1994.

Gilbert, Martin The Second World War: A Complete History (Elsevier, 2004).

Hanson, Victor Davis. The Second World Wars: How the First Global Conflict Was Fought and Won. Basic Books, 2017.

Keegan, John. The Second World War. Penguin Books, 2005.

Toland, John. The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936-1945. Modern Library, 2003.

 

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History

Today is Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day-“A Date That Will Live In Infamy” ( 7 December 1941)

“We here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain… remember Dec. 7th!” Creator/Contributor: Russell Allen Sauberg, Office of War Information Publisher: U.S. Government Printing Office 1942 Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

On this date in 1941, Japan launched a carrier-based strike on U.S. military forces based in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Their strategy was to convince the country and its leaders that war with Japan would be futile. They achieved tactical surprise as no warning of an attack had yet been received. While decryption of their codes had revealed their intent, the warning did not reach Pearl Harbor until after the attack had begun. The Japanese legation in Washington did not deliver their government’s official response declaring war until after the attack due to problems in transcribing the message. The attack began at 07:55 local time (12:55 p.m. in Washington D.C.). It was early afternoon when President Roosevelt was notified by Secretary of War Henry Stimson of the attack. There was some doubt among some staff as to the validity of the report, but President Roosevelt believed it. And subsequent reports would show it was true. Radio was soon reporting on it as well and the entire nation soon learned of the shocking event that had taken place in the faraway location.

The purpose of the attack was to seriously cripple the U.S. Naval and Army Air Corp operations. The surprise was effective in sinking or crippling numerous ships and destroying most of the planes on the ground. However, the primary target of the Japanese, the aircraft carriers, were not there and they had no idea where they were. After conducting two strikes and contemplating a third, Admiral Nagumo decided to retire due to deteriorating weather, that they were at the far end of logistical support, and they had no idea where the three carriers were. Captain Minoru Genda argued for a third strike and invasion to taking out the storage, maintenance, and docking facilities in Pearl Harbor. Nagumo realized also in the time it would take to make a third strike that American forces might counterattack. Additionally, the attack group was low on fuel requiring them to conserve fuel. Later Admiral Yamamoto would say that it was a mistake as it allowed the U.S. to come back quickly.

The USS Arizona burning after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941.
National Archives Identifier: 520601/Local Identifier: 80-G-32420.
Public Domain

Most of those who died at Pearl were sailors aboard the ships that were damaged or sunk. Of the 2,008 sailors killed, 1,177 were killed when the forward magazine on the USS Arizona exploded. Eighteen ships were sunk, beached, or run aground. 188 aircraft (mostly Army Air Corps) destroyed, 159 damaged. Most of the planes were destroyed on the ground. Only eight pilots got airborne and did attack Japanese aircraft but only one was shot down. Some pilots were killed or shot down later by friendly fire. Five inbound planes from USS Enterprise were shot down. The Navy lost 24 of its PBY planes. Additional casualties came from when Japanese attacked barracks. 2,403 Americans killed and 1,178 others were wounded. Since the U.S. was not at war, they are all classified as non-combatants. The Japanese lost 55 airmen, nine submariners and one captured. They lost 29 planes in battle and 74 were damaged by antiaircraft fire.

“The Japanese Government regrets to have to notify hereby the American Government that in view of the attitude of the American Government it cannot but consider that it is impossible to reach an agreement through further negotiations.”

As news broke across the country of the attack, the Japanese ambassador met with Secretary of State Cordell Hull at 2:30 pm to deliver the Japanese response. The long message listed the Japanese concerns and accusations about seeking peace ended with it saying they could no longer accept the current proposal and no further negotiations. Cordell Hull, after reading the full document, could not believe what he just read. According to Time magazine, he was visibly angry and responded: “In all my 50 years of public service I have never seen a document that was more crowded with infamous falsehoods and distortions — infamous falsehoods and distortions on a scale so huge that I never imagined until today that any government on this planet was capable of uttering them.” Japanese ambassador Admiral Kichisaburo Nomura (retired) remained silent along with an accompanying official. Hull would note in his diary later that he knew that Nomura was sincerely working for peace and totally unaware of the planned attack. In fact, the Japanese foreign office was never told about the planned attack. Nomura and the rest of his staff were interned and in 1942 sent to Portuguese East Africa where they were exchanged for Americans interned in Japan.

People enjoying a pleasant Sunday afternoon now were listening to news reports and early editions of newspapers screamed the headlines of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Military recruitment centers found lines of young men wanting to join up to fight the Japanese. The isolationist sentiment that once screamed for peace was ushered to the rear while most of the nation united against Japan. Old political foes in Congress now joined together supporting war. And on 8 November 1941, President Roosevelt addressed a joint session of Congress–carried live on radio–and asked for a declaration of war.

Mr. Vice President, Mr. Speaker, members of the Senate and the House of Representatives:

Yesterday, December 7th, 1941 – a date which will live in infamy – the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.

The United States was at peace with that nation, and, at the solicitation of Japan, was still in conversation with its government and its Emperor looking toward the maintenance of peace in the Pacific.

Indeed, one hour after Japanese air squadrons had commenced bombing in the American island of Oahu, the Japanese Ambassador to the United States and his colleague delivered to our Secretary of State a formal reply to a recent American message. And, while this reply stated that it seemed useless to continue the existing diplomatic negotiations, it contained no threat or hint of war or of armed attack.

It will be recorded that the distance of Hawaii from Japan makes it obvious that the attack was deliberately planned many days or even weeks ago. During the intervening time the Japanese Government has deliberately sought to deceive the United States by false statements and expressions of hope for continued peace.

The attack yesterday on the Hawaiian Islands has caused severe damage to American naval and military forces. I regret to tell you that very many American lives have been lost. In addition, American ships have been reported torpedoed on the high seas between San Francisco and Honolulu.

Yesterday the Japanese Government also launched an attack against Malaya.
Last night Japanese forces attacked Hong Kong.
Last night Japanese forces attacked Guam.
Last night Japanese forces attacked the Philippine Islands.
Last night the Japanese attacked Wake Island.
And this morning the Japanese attacked Midway Island.

Japan has therefore undertaken a surprise offensive extending throughout the Pacific area. The facts of yesterday and today speak for themselves. The people of the United States have already formed their opinions and well understand the implications to the very life and safety of our nation.

As Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy I have directed that all measures be taken for our defense, that always will our whole nation remember the character of the onslaught against us.

No matter how long it may take us to overcome this premeditated invasion, the American people, in their righteous might, will win through to absolute victory.

I believe that I interpret the will of the Congress and of the people when I assert that we will not only defend ourselves to the uttermost but will make it very certain that this form of treachery shall never again endanger us.

Hostilities exist. There is no blinking at the fact that our people, our territory and our interests are in grave danger.

With confidence in our armed forces, with the unbounding determination of our people, we will gain the inevitable triumph. So help us God.

I ask that the Congress declare that since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by Japan on Sunday, December 7th, 1941, a state of war has existed between the United States and the Japanese Empire.

Congress declared war an hour later. The attack did not result in America cowering but uniting it. Both Italy and Germany, as members of the Pact of Steel, declared war on the United States. Roosevelt was surprised at both doing so. The German High Command was unprepared for war with America (they had planned it would happen some years later) and now faced a two-front war, something they had hoped to avoid. Italians were puzzled that Mussolini declared war on America and side with Germany. It was a foolish decision by Mussolini that would ultimately lead to his ouster in 1943.

Aftermath

Japan had control of the Pacific until June 1942. That is when the U.S. Navy engaged the Japanese at the Battle of Midway. At the end of the battle, four Japanese aircraft carriers were sunk to our one (the Yorktown). It was a shocking loss to the Japanese (and one they kept secret for as long as possible). The Doolittle Raid earlier that year had convinced them to take on the American Navy directly. They did and lost spectacularly. And it shifted the balance of power in the Pacific. Admiral Yamamoto, who supported the attack on Pearl Harbor, had expressed concerns about a long-term conflict with America. “I shall run wild considerably for the first six months or a year, but I have utterly no confidence for the second and third years,” he noted in memos before the war began. The famous Sleeping Giant quote though is purely fictional coming primarily from the movie Tora! Tora! Tora!.

Yamamoto would not survive the war. President Roosevelt ordered that he be taken care of for his part in planning the Pearl Harbor attack. Thanks to the work of U.S. Naval Intelligence that had broken Japanese codes (code named Magic), his travel plans to the South Pacific in April 1943 were learned. Orders were given and select pilots were used to target a very important high officer but were not told who it was. On 18 April 1943, a squadron of Lockheed P-38’s was assigned to intercept and bring down his transport being escorted by Japanese zeroes. There were two Japanese transports. After a dogfight with the Zeroes and transports, the transport with Yamamoto’s plane crashed into the jungle north of Buin, Papua New Guinea. Japanese search parties found his body, thrown from the aircraft and under a tree. He had two .50 caliber bullet wounds, one in his left shoulder and the other that had exited through his right eye. The true manner of his death was hidden from the Japanese public and not revealed until long after the war had ended. He was cremated, given a state funeral, and given posthumous titles and awards. Today the place where his plane crashed is a tourist attraction.

Sources

———. “Pearl Harbor: Attack, Deaths & Facts.” HISTORY. Last modified December 1, 2025. Accessed December 3, 2025. https://www.history.com/articles/pearl-harbor.

“Pearl Harbor Attack.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified November 30, 2025. Accessed December 3, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/event/Pearl-Harbor-attack.

“Pearl Harbor Attack, December 7, 1941,” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, last modified December 7, 2001, accessed December 3, 2025, https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/topics/pearl-harbor-december-7-1941.

“Pearl Harbor Attack, December 7, 1941,” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, last modified December 7, 2001, accessed December 3, 2025, https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/topics/pearl-harbor-december-7-1941.

For more information

Home of Heroes, “Home of Heroes – Medal of Honor & Military History,” Home of Heroes, last modified June 27, 2024, https://homeofheroes.com/.

“The History Place – World War II in Europe Timeline: December 7, 1941 – Japanese Bomb Pearl Harbor,” http://www.historyplace.com/worldwar2/timeline/pearl.htm.

“NHHC,” https://www.history.navy.mil/. (Naval Heritage & History Command

“USS Arizona BB-39 – USSARIZONA.ORG – Official Homepage of Battleship USS Arizona (BB-39) & Pearl Harbor Memorial Website Since 1999,” https://www.ussarizona.org/.

Suggested Reading & Media

Books

Walter Lord, Day of Infamy, 60th Anniversary: The Classic Account of the Bombing of Pearl Harbor (Macmillan, 2001).

Gordon W. Prange, At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor; Revised Edition (Penguin Books, 1991).

John Toland, Infamy: Pearl Harbor and Its Aftermath (Anchor, 1992).

John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936-1945 (Modern Library, 2003).

Films

The History Channel Presents: Pearl Harbor, DVD (Lionsgate, 2001).

National Geographic – Pearl Harbor: Legacy of Attack, DVD (National Geographic, 2001).

Dec. 7th, 1941: Pearl Harbor Old Historic Films USS Arizona Before and After. DVD. Campbell Films, 1941. This has 5 separate films in the collection. One is from Japan telling its citizens of the great victory. Another is a War Department film about the attack. There is an episode from Victory At Sea included, newsreels, and a film about USS Arizona. A must have for the serious enthusiast!

Attack on Pearl Harbor – A Day of Infamy, DVD (Timeless Media, n.d.).

Tora! Tora! Tora! DVD. Williams-Fleischer Productions, Toei Company, 2006. This 1970 movie covers it from both the Japanese and American perspectives and is historically accurate. This provides an even handed look at both sides without a lot of drama (which was criticized) but the recreation of the attack is considered on the best done. Later movies rely on many of the action scenes from this movie. It takes the documentaries and brings them alive with a real cast and sees how this attack was planned, staged, and executed.

Titanic News Channel is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com.

History

Remembering History: Nuremberg Trials Begin (20 November 1945)

Nuremberg Trials. Defendants in their dock, circa 1945-1946.
(in front row, from left to right): Hermann Göring, Rudolf Heß, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Wilhelm Keitel
(in second row, from left to right): Karl Dönitz, Erich Raeder, Baldur von Schirach, Fritz Sauckel)
Public Domain (Wikipedia)

In the aftermath of World War II, there was debate about how to hold accountable those responsible for war crimes and especially the Holocaust. Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler and Joseph Goebbels were already dead by suicide. Churchill had the simplest approach of wanting to simply execute them, but it was decided that tribunal would be a better method. The tribunal would reveal to the world the extent of the crimes upon humanity the persons were responsible for.

The concept of an international tribunal was novel and had never been done before. Then again, no nation had before committed to full scale extermination of whole peoples as the Nazi’s had tried to do. An international tribunal composed of representatives from Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States was formed. Defendants faced charges that varied from war crimes to crimes against humanity. Twenty- four were indicted along with six Nazi organizations such as the Gestapo that were also determined to be criminal. One was declared medically unfit to stand trial and another committed suicide before the trial began. Two top Hitler associates, Heinrich Himmler (1900-45) and Joseph Goebbels (1897-45), had each committed suicide in the spring of 1945 before they could be brought to trial.

Each defendant was allowed to choose their own lawyers. They all pled not guilty and either argued that the crimes they committed were declared crimes after the London Charter (meaning ex post facto) or that they were applying harsh standards as they were the victors. The trials would last 1 October 1946 when verdicts were handed down. Twelve were sentenced to death and others got prison terms. On 16 October 1946, 10 Nazi policy architects were hanged. Hermann Goering, who had been called the “leading war aggressor and creator of the oppressive program against the Jews,” committed suicide by poison the night before. Martin Bormann was tried in absentia and many thought he had escaped Germany. However, he never left Berlin, and his remains were eventually found (it appears he committed suicide), examined, and conclusively identified in 1988 using DNA. Other war criminals (German and Axis government leaders both civilian and military) would be tried into the 1950’s. 5,025 were convicted and 806 were executed. Those not sentenced to death, depending on what they did, served life sentences or were given shorter sentences.

Sources

“Nuremberg Trials,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified November 5, 2025, accessed November 20, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/event/Nurnberg-trials.

“Nuremberg Trials Begin | November 20, 1945 | HISTORY,” HISTORY, last modified May 28, 2025, accessed November 20, 2025, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/november-20/nuremberg-trials-begin.

“Nuremberg Trials | Holocaust Encyclopedia,” Holocaust Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-nuremberg-trials.

“The Nuremberg Trials,” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/topics/nuremberg-trials.

“What Were the Nuremberg Trials?,” HISTORY, last modified November 3, 2025, accessed November 20, 2025, https://www.history.com/articles/nuremberg-trials.

Suggested Reading

Conot, Robert E. Justice at Nuremberg. Basic Books, 1993.

Gilbert, G. M. Nuremberg Diary. Da Capo Press, 1995.

Persico, Joseph E. Nuremberg: Infamy on Trial. Penguin, 1995.

Taylor, Telford. The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials: A Personal Memoir. Skyhorse, 2013

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History

Remembering History: Goebbels Blames the Jews for World War II (16 Nov 1941)

Joseph Goebbels, Reich Minister of Propaganda
Heinrich Hoffmann (1885-1957)
German Federal Archives via Wikimedia

On 16 November 1941, Joseph Goebbels publishes in the German magazine Das Reich that the “Jews wanted the war, and now they have it.” This was part of the Nazi propaganda scheme to shift blame for the war to Jews and thus rationalizing  the Final Solution–the elimination of Jews.  German soldiers and the SS were infused with this propaganda and anti-Communist rhetoric to carry out their task of eliminating the Jews with enthusiasm.

[T]he prophecy which the Fuhrer made…that should international finance Jewry succeed in plunging the nations into a world war once again, the result would not be the Bolshevization of the world…but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe. We are in the midst of that process…Compassion or regret are entirely out of place here.

Joseph Goebbels (1897-1945)

Joseph Goebbels joined the Nazi Party in 1924. He had obtained a PhD in German literature from the University of Heidelberg in 1920. Prior to joining the party, he had worked as a writer, journalist, and clerk. The same year he joined the Nazi Party, he became editor of the Völkische Freiheit (Folkish Freedom) where he honed his propaganda skills for the party. Goebbels became an admirer of Hitler and became unfailingly loyal to him. He was also a rabid antisemite.

He came to Hitler’s attention in 1926 due to his organizational skills, devotion to the party, and his clever propaganda. He was made a regional Gauleiter (party chief) for Greater Berlin. He built up the Nazi Party organization and ran his own newspaper (Der Angriff or The Assault in English) until 1935 where he advanced the Nazi Party goals of anticommunism, antisemitism, and promoted Hitler becoming dictator of Germany. He would be elected to the Reichstag in 1928 representing the Nazi Party in Berlin.

Goebbels was a tireless agitator as the District Leader in Berlin. He railed against the Communist and Social Democratic party members, marched with the SA (Storm Troopers) into working class neighborhoods where support for those parties was strong. Bitter street fights would result, and Goebbels would call those who were injured or killed as suffering for the party. He made sure through his paper and other media of the heroism of those who suffered. Films were made to dramatize the events and led to the creation of the Horst Wessel Song, named for one of those who were killed in 1930. The song would become the party’s anthem.

The image he crafted was one of bloodied stormtrooper (and overly muscled as well) that would appear in Nazi propaganda for years to come. They died, the party said, fighting the Marxist enemy.

Hitler would appoint him as Reich leader of propaganda for the Nazi Party in 1929 and would hold that position until his death in 1945. Hitler relied on Goebbels in the critical elections of 1932. Goebbels was the first of that era to use radio and film for mass propaganda techniques. Films of Nazi rallies, speeches, and other important events were filmed and broadcast over the radio to inspire supporters and draw new ones in. Hitler was depicted by Goebbels as energetic and using all the modern modes of transport to get around Germany. Films showed him flying all over Germany on the same day holding events.

German students publicly burn collected, “un-German” writings and books on the central boulevard “Unter den Linden” in Berlin.
10 May 1933
Photo: Pahl, Georg
German Federal Archives via Wikimedia Commons

After Hitler was appointed Chancellor in 1933, Goebbels would be instrumental in implementing the Nazi’s desire to control all aspects of German culture. Hitler established the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda in March. At thirty-five years of age, he was the youngest member of the cabinet. Goebbels was tasked with decontamination of German culture, and nothing was considered outside of their control. Film, radio, and the press all fell under Goebbels control, and he used it to its fullest advantage. To make sure German’s accepted the anti-Jewish measures, Jews were cast into the worst possible light. Viewpoints unacceptable to the Nazi Party were silenced, books and publications were suppressed, and supported book burnings to cleanse the German spirit. Preaching national unity, Goebbels rallied people to support Hitler and the Nazi Party against those who had damaged Germany. And Jews were at the top of the list along with Communists, Socialists, certain religious groups, and others such as Roma. The doctrine of racial purity that party believed in excluded large swaths of people from German society.

Goebbels was the chief instigator for Kristallnacht in 1938. He convinced Hitler that the murder of the German diplomat in Paris was the perfect opportunity for a nationwide attack on Jews. And when Germany needed to invade other countries, he helped develop the Führer cult which glorified Hitler as both Germany’s war leader and savior. Mass propaganda was used to convince people that countries had to be invaded to save them from their mess created by Jews and Liberalism. Of course, during this whole time, the mass propaganda depicting the Jews and others negatively made it easier to target, imprison, and execute them. Right up until the end the near deification of Hitler and the rabid antisemitism would continue until the war ended in 1945. Goebbels was a complete supporter of the Final Solution-the Holocaust-the extermination of all Jews.

One of Goebbels last tasks in the final years was as Plenipotentiary for the War Economy which Hitler appointed him to in 1944. Goebbels had worked hard to keep morale up especially after the defeat at Stalingrad. In the new position, he was to help maximize manpower and arms production. He was not highly successful and ran into opposition with other ministers particularly Albert Speer who was in charge of armaments.

After Hitler committed suicide on 30 April 1945, Goebbels became the new Reich Chancellor. He refused the idea of surrender and knew full well he would be put on trial and executed. He and his wife Magda poisoned their six children and then both committed suicide on 1 May 1945. The corpses were partly burned but never buried. There were repeated burials and exhumations, and they were finally buried in Magdeburg at the SMERSH facility in 1946. The remains were exhumed again in 1970 under orders from KGB director Yuri Andropov and destroyed. They were then dumped into the Biederitz river.

Sources

“Joseph Goebbels Publishes His Screed of Hate | November 16, 1941 | HISTORY,” HISTORY, last modified May 28, 2025, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/november-16/goebbels-publishes-his-screed-of-hate.

“Joseph Goebbels | Holocaust Encyclopedia,” Holocaust Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/joseph-goebbels-1.

“Joseph Goebbels,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified October 28, 2025, accessed November 19, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Goebbels.

Suggested Reading

Gilbert, Martin. Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction. Harper Collins, 2007.

———. The Second World War: A Complete History. Elsevier, 2004.

———. The Holocaust: The Jewish Tragedy. HarperCollins Publishers, 1987.

Longerich, Peter. Goebbels. Random House, 2016.

Manvell, Roger, and Heinrich Fraenkel. Doctor Goebbels: His Life and Death. Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2010.

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Titanic

Remembering History: Pierre Laval Executed (15 Oct 1945) and Hermann Goering Commits Suicide (15 Oct 1946)

Pierre Laval Executed (15 October 1945)

FRANCE – JANUARY 02: Marshal Petain And Prime Minister Pierre Laval In The Park Of The Sevigne Pavillion In Vichy In 1942. Behind Them, On The Left, Dr. Bernard Menetrel Keeps Out Of Their Conversation. (Photo by Keystone-France/Gamma-Keystone via Getty Images)
Public Doman via Wikimedia Commons

Following the French surrender to Germany in 1940, the Vichy state was created with Henri -Phillipe Pétain in charge and Pierre Laval as head of state. Laval began his political life as a pacifist but shifted to fascism in the 1930’s and anti-communist supporting France aligning with Italy rather than the Soviet Union. With war looming in 1939, he argued against war with Germany encouraging the antiwar faction to avoid sending troops into Germany when it invaded Poland in September 1939. His support of Germany got himself a high position in the new Vichy government.

Pétain disliked Laval and dismissed him after learning he was negotiating with Germany on his own. His friendship with Hitler though would bring him back into power becoming the real ruler of Vichy with Pétain as a figurehead. Under his rule, he carried out German directives rounding up and deporting Jews and imposing their draconian laws and policies. He fled to Germany after France was liberated in 1944. He had to flee again when Germany was defeated in 1945 to Spain. Franco deported him and hid out in Austria ultimately surrendering to American forces. Put on trial in France for his collaboration with Germany, he was found guilty of treason after a sensational trial that revealed how complicit he had been. Sentenced to death, he attempted suicide and failed. He was executed by firing squad on 15 October 1945.

Marshal Henri -Phillipe Pétain, revered for his service for France in World War I, was spared execution. Though convicted of treason and sentenced to death, the court asked that it not be carried out. President Charles de Gaulle commuted his sentence to life imprisonment. He was stripped of nearly all his military ranks and decorations but retained the rank of Marshal. He died in 1951.

Hermann Goering Commits Suicide (15 October 1946)

Herman Goering body, 15 Oct 1946
Public Domain

Hermann Goering was the highest member of Nazi Germany to be put on trial after World War II (except for Admiral Donitz who was appointed Reich President by Hitler in 1945). As Reichsmarschall, he held the highest military rank answerable only to Hitler and his designated successor. He commanded the Luftwaffe, was president of the Reichstag, prime minister of Prussia and many more titles too long to list here. Under his direction, concentration camps were created to imprison the regime’s enemies. Goering was greatly responsible for many of the anti-Jewish policies that were implemented particularly Kristallnacht where Jewish business were looted and nearly every synagogue was burned to the ground. He was known for his great art collection that was substantially increased as it was enlarged by art taken from captured countries.

Because of his high position and Hitler’s confidence in him, few dared to oppose him. Only SS head Heinrich Himmler was his only threat. Both ironically would try and fail to assume power in the last days before Germany fell in 1945. Goering’s stature had diminished over time with Hitler. He failed to deliver a fatal blow during the Battle of Britain (1940) and his Luftwaffe did not deter enemy bombings of Germany. His increased reliance on painkillers to overcome depression led to addiction causing problems for Hitler and others around him. After his dismissal (officially called a retirement for health reasons), he would later surrender himself to Allied forces rather than be taken by the Soviets. He would be tried in Nuremberg for various crimes against humanity.

As a result of his imprisonment, Goering’s addiction to painkillers ended allowing him to defend himself at the International Military Tribunal. He denied complicity in the more heinous acts done in concentration camps and the murdering of Jews, blaming them on Himmler. He tried to portray himself as a peacemaker and diplomat. Some testimony pointed out that opposing Hitler was impossible as it meant execution. However, when documents were introduced showing his complicity in Kristallnacht in 1938. Testimony also showed he knew about the execution of 50 airman who escaped but got recaptured as well as the extermination of Hungarian Jews.

He was found guilty of all charges on 30 September 1946 and sentenced to be hanged. He asked to be shot as a soldier but that was denied. Before he was to be executed on 16 October 1946, he committed suicide the night before taking a potassium cyanide capsule. Attempts to revive him failed but the mystery of how he obtained the poison would linger for years. A note written by him was found in 1967 stating he had hidden the capsule in a pomade container. In 2005 a former army private, Lee Stivers, who had served in the honor guard at the trial, came forward to say he had been given a pen by a German girl named Mona. According to his story, he had met her on the street one day and was impressed with him. Two male acquaintances of hers asked him to take secret messages to Goering using a fountain pen. He did this twice but on the third time he was told it contained a pill that was medication for Goering. He never saw the woman or the two men again and came forward to clear his conscience in the matter.

There are many that doubt Stivers story, but some believe it to be true. Aaron Breitbart of the Simon Wiesenthal Center in Los Angeles is quoted by the BBC as saying, “is crazy enough to be true.” In the end his body and the others executed were cremated and the ashes scattered over the Isar River.

Sources

Pierre Laval

Hermann Goering

Suggested Reading

Bross, Werner. Conversations with Göring Nuremberg 1946. Translated by Ralf Einem. Independently published, 2024.

Curtis, Michael. Verdict on Vichy: Power and Prejudice in the Vichy France Regime. Orion Media, 2004.

Gilbert, Martin. Kristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction. Harper Collins, 2007.

Manvell, Roger, and Heinrich Fraenkel. Goering: The Rise and Fall of the Notorious Nazi Leader. Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2011.

Paxton, Robert O. Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order 1940-1944. Columbia University Press, 2001.

Persico, Joseph E. Nuremberg: Infamy on Trial Penguin, 1995

Shirer, William L. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany. Simon and Schuster, 2011.

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