The northeast face of Two World Trade Center (south tower) after being struck by plane in the south face. September 11, 2001 Source: Robert (Flickr(
It was a day that changed America. Planes hijacked by terrorists flew into the North and South towers of the World Trade Center. Another plane would crash into the Pentagon. And a fourth plane that was destined for a target in Washington D.C. crash-landed into a field in Pennsylvania. The extreme heat caused by the fires from the impact of the planes would cause the collapse of the two towers.
Picture of the World Trade Center on 9/11 shortly after the WTC1 had collapsed. September 11, 2001 Source: Wally Gobetz
Firefighters and police raced to the towers trying to rescue those trapped inside the burning buildings. Stories of their heroism in getting people out are extraordinary examples of courage that are both remarkable and breathtaking. Things were so dire at one point that some jumped out of windows to the shock of people watching. And when the buildings collapsed, many of these brave firefighters and police were killed. As the rubble was cleared later, every body of a fallen firefighter and police officer was removed with great care and respect.
Ground Zero, New York City, N.Y. (Sept. 17, 2001) Source: U.S.Navy Public Domain
More than 3,000 people were killed (including 400 police and firefighters). Over 10,000 were wounded during the attacks on 9/11. Some suffered long term effects due to smoke inhalation and toxic chemicals that were burning at the time. The attacks of 9/11 was the most devastating foreign attack on American soil since the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.
We take time today to remember the fallen of 9/11. They went to work, got on planes, and did countless other things not knowing the evil that was about to take place. Countless lives were changed that day. Families were shattered with the loss of a husband or wife, beloved son or daughter. Friends were never seen again having perished in the towers, the Pentagon, or a passenger on the planes used as weapons.
We cannot forget those who perished on this day. And the heroic sacrifices of first responders- firefighters and police-who tried to save lives cannot be forgotten either.
We ask you in your goodness to give eternal light and peace to all who died here— the heroic first-responders: our fire fighters, police officers, emergency service workers, and Port Authority personnel, along with all the innocent men and women who were victims of this tragedy simply because their work or service brought them here on September 11, 2001.
We ask you, in your compassion to bring healing to those who, because of their presence here that day, suffer from injuries and illness. Heal, too, the pain of still-grieving families and all who lost loved ones in this tragedy. Give them strength to continue their lives with courage and hope.
Battle of Lake Erie by William Henry Powell (1823–1879) U.S. Senate Art Collection, U.S. Capitol, Washington D.C. Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
During the War of 1812, control over Lake Erie and the Northwest were crucial to both the British and the United States. The War of 1812 between the British and the United States resulted from simmering tensions between the two since the end of the American War of Independence. Though long over by this time, tensions existed between the two. The British had attempted to restrict U.S. trade. During the Napoleonic Wars, the U.S. was neutral, but the British were not happy with American merchant ships supplying the French with supplies. Another issue was the forced impressment of American seamen. To fill out their crews, the British Royal Navy would stop merchant ships and take some of their crews forcing them into Royal Navy service. Additionally, tension over the U.S. desire to expand its territory led to clashes with the British as well.
These and other things led President James Madison to declare war on Great Britain on 18 June 1812. While it passed Congress (barely), it was not popular in New England since they heavily relied on trade. Western and Southern states generally supported the war. However, the realities of war would soon set in. The attempt to take Canada was a failure and resulted in a humiliating defeat on 16 August 1812 with Detroit being surrendered without firing a shot. The American Navy was aided early on with the fact the British were also fighting Napoleon so not all their ships were committed. One notable naval battle was at Lake Michigan in 1813. At stake in this battle was control of Detroit, Lake Erie, and nearby territories the U.S had claims on.
The American naval forces were led by Captain Oliver Hazard Perry, who had nine ships. The British had six warships led by Commander Robert Heriot Barclay. Barclay was an experienced naval officer who had served under Nelson at Trafalgar. The British were armed with long gun cannons that gave them a range of about a full mile, while the Americans used carronades that had half the range of the British cannons. This meant that Perry would inflict a lot of damage but at closer range. At first the wind was against Perry in the morning and then shifted giving him an advantage. He would raise a famous navy-blue banner written with the words “DON’T GIVE UP THE SHIP” as the slogan to rally his officers.
The ensuing battle would last for hours, and Perry would lose his flagship Lawrence. He transferred his flag over to the Niagara and then sailed straight into the British line firing broadsides that ultimately gave him the win when they surrendered. Perry lost 27 sailors and 96 wounded, while the British lost 40 dead and left with 94 wounded. Perry sent a famous dispatch to U.S. General William Henry Harrison that said, “We have met the enemy, and they are ours.” The British were forced to abandon Detroit after the Battle of the Thames resulting in American control of the area.
Aftermath
The victory was an important one when many battles had gone against the United States. The Royal Navy was still fighting Napoleon so not of its navy was committed to North America. This would change in April 1814 when Napoleon was defeated. With both ships and troops now freed up, they raided Chesapeake Bay and moved on the capital of Washington D.C. burning it and other government buildings to the ground on 24 August 1814.
On 11 September 1814, the American navy defeated the British fleet at the Battle of Plattsburgh at Lake Champlain, New York. A furious battle at Fort McHenry in Baltimore took place on 13 September 1814 and withstood 25 hours of bombardment by the British navy. After the bombardment had ended, the Americans raised a large flag over the fort to show they had survived the bombardment. Seeing the flag being raised inspired Francis Scott Key to write a poem that later would be set to music called “Star Spangled Banner.” British forces withdrew and prepared to act against New Orleans. Negotiations for a peace settlement were undertaken not long after in Ghent (modern day Belgium). The resulting Treaty of Ghent would abolish the taking of American sailors from merchant ships for British naval service, solidify the borders of Canada as we know them today, and end British attempts to create an Indian state in the Northwest. The treaty was signed on Christmas Eve, 1814. Formal ratification would be in February 1815.
It was during this time that the famous Battle of New Orleans would occur. On 8 January 1815, British forces (unaware of the peace deal yet due to slow communications of the time) launched a major attack on New Orleans. General Andrew Jackson led the Americans in this famous battle and defeated the British soundly. News of the battle was another boost to American morale and likely convinced the British that they were right to get out of this war as well. For Canadians and Native Americans, it ended their attempt to govern themselves. For Americans, it ushered in a new time of good feelings ending the partisan divisions that had grown since the Revolutionary War. National self-confidence would ensue and a growing spirit of expansionism that would shape the rest of the 19th century. The country resulting from it would be comprised of states and territories that went from New York on the Atlantic Ocean to San Francisco on the Pacific making it one of the largest countries in the world.
On 8 Sep 1941, German forces began their siege of Leningrad that would last 872 days making it one of the most grueling sieges in modern warfare. Let’s find out more about it.
The fire of anti-aircraft guns deployed in the neighborhood of St. Isaac’s cathedral during the defense of Leningrad (now called St. Petersburg, its pre-Soviet name) in 1941. Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Leningrad (formerly known as St. Petersburg and capital of Russia before the Communist takeover in 1918), was a major industrial center and the Soviet Union’s second largest city. When Germany in June 1941, many of the city’s industrial plants and inhabitants were relocated far to the east to prevent capture. Two million were left behind though to face the rapidly moving German army. Everyone who could lift a shovel (men, women, and children) were conscripted to build anti-tank fortifications around the city’s edge. The railway to Moscow was cut off at the end of July by German forces and they were starting to penetrate the outer fortifications of the city. On 8 September, German forces began besieging the city but were held back by the fortifications and the tenacity of the defenders, some 200,000 Red Army soldiers. German bombers destroyed a warehouse containing food making life more difficult for the defenders.
Germans next moved to seal off the remaining highways and rail lines south of the city. Finnish forces joined the Germans by coming down the Karelian Isthmus in the north so that by November the entire city was encircled. German bombings intensified with raids several times a day. Most people were reduced to eating one slice of bread per day and starvation was rampant. One of the coldest winters on record would set in as well adding to the misery of the inhabitants. Many continued to work to produce arms to help defeat the Germans despite the lack of food and warmth as well. Just about anything that could be burned for heat was used from books to furniture. Pets (dogs and cats) were eaten along with animals from the city zoo. Wallpaper paste was used for food and leather boiled to make an edible jelly. Plants, grasses and weeds were put to use to produce vitamin supplements. Cannabilizing the dead was a major issue resulting in the Leningrad police department having a special unit to handle it.
Some supplies were able to be brought in over Lake Ladoga, but it was very small and not enough to alleviate the conditions in the city. Some were evacuated-mostly elderly and children-but many were unable to leave and starved and or froze to death. In June 1943 the Soviet Army was able break through the German blockade and establish a better supply line along the shores of Lake Ladoga. The city was kept alive through this and later an oil pipeline and electric cables were connected to the city despite the ongoing siege. When spring came in 1943, land was put to use so that by summer produce could be grown. The siege would end when the Soviet Army forced the German army to retreat in January 1944. The siege ended but the human toll was enormous. Over a million died. Survivors got the Order of Lenin in 1945. The population of Leningrad (now renamed to St. Petersburg) did not regain its former population of three million until the 1960’s.
St. Petersburg, Petrograd, Leningrad?
St. Petersburg was found in 1703 by Tsar Peter the Great and named after the apostle St. Peter. Until 1918, it served as capital of the Russian Empire when it was moved by the Bolsheviks to Moscow. The city was both a cultural center as well as the capital in old Russia. At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the city was renamed Petrograd because of the strong anti-German sentiment and the fact its name contained two German words. In 1924 after Lenin’s death, the city was renamed for him, Leningrad. In 1991 a public referendum approved the renaming of the city back to St. Petersburg. The city is a major tourist destination owing to its cultural and historical significance. An old guidebook reminds the city is spread out, so be prepared to spend time going to and from the various historical sites. Summers can be warm and sometimes rainy (bring waterproof jackets and something to wear if it gets chilly as well). Winters are cold, so bring cold gear. Surprisingly St. Petersburg is not as cold as Moscow during the winter.
St. Petersburg, Russia. View from the visitor’s gallery at the Colonnade of the St. Isaac’s Cathedral. 2012 A.Savin via Wikimedia Commons
The Great Fire of London in 1666 would decimate London, result in its rebuilding, and changes in how buildings and streets were laid out in the city.
The Great Fire of London by anonymous 1675 Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
In 1666, London was a huge city and the capital of Britain. While many of the important homes and buildings were often made of stone, most homes and buildings were made of oak and often used tar to weatherproof them. Streets were also narrow with buildings close together making it hard for people and carts to move about on narrow streets. Sanitation was also poor since many people tossed their garbage-and chamber pots-into the street. The modern toilet had not been invented so most bodily waste went into these pots. Add to it horse manure on the streets, and most cities like London had some unpleasant odors especially in summertime.
Firefighting was also different back then. It comprised mainly of local bucket brigades and primitive water pumps on trucks. Since fire was considered a serious threat, people were told to be vigilant and make sure their homes were safe. However, as it turns out, people were not always so careful. On the evening of 1 September 1666 Thomas Farrinor, a baker employed by King Charles II on Pudding Lane, went to bed not making sure that the fire is his oven was properly extinguished. Sometime during the night sparks from the dying embers in the oven ignited firewood lying nearby. Not long after the house would soon become engulfed in flames. Farrinor and his family would flee and survive the fire. Sadly, a maid in the home did not survive as she did not want to jump out of the window.
Sparks from the fire would spread across the street to the Star Inn. It ignited the straw in the stables along with other combustibles and soon the inn was ablaze. The fire would spread from there to Thames Street. Warehouses on the riverfront would soon ignite as well. Full of candles, lamp oil, tallow and coal, the fire would grow larger and begin to spread. The local fire brigade was quickly overwhelmed and had to retreat. The primitive water fighting trucks of the time could barely navigate the streets. Panic ensued as people raced to the Thames with everything they owned. Attempts at using firebreaks by tearing down homes and buildings was tried but the fire overwhelmed them. The fire got so bright it could be seen 30 miles away. Finally on 5 September it started dying out and on the next day it was put out. There was one flare up in the Temple district but when a building containing gunpowder blew up with a powerful bang, the last remnants of the fire was over.
Four-fifths of London was destroyed and remarkably only 16 died. But 100,000 were homeless. The fire burned down the historic St. Paul’s Cathedral along with scores of other churches, buildings, and historic landmarks. King Charles II had a massive task to rebuild the city. He commissioned noted architect Sir Christopher Wren to rebuild St. Paul’s which still stands to this day. New homes and buildings had to be built with bricks and stones; wood was not allowed. And walls had to be thicker and buildings not so close together. Also, streets were widened and the old narrow streets and alleys banned. Access to the river was made easier as well by restricting housing that would block access. The homeless were suggested to go to other cities, towns, and villages outside of London to resettle. Economically it would take many years for London to recover. Most businesses had lost their premises and whatever goods were stored. The commercial district lost a lot of its businesses as they relocated elsewhere. London’s access to shipping routes and that it was the capital kept the city from completely losing its place in the world.
One of the more disturbing aftereffects was the strong anti-Catholic and anti-foreign sentiment that emerged. While most reasoned after studying how the fire began it was an accident, there were many who believed Catholics, Dutch, and French were involved. Opponents of pro- Catholic King Charles II made it an issue. That is why in the Monument that was put up in 1670’s had an inscription on it blaming the disaster on the “treachery and malice of the Popish faction.” This was removed in 1830 but at one time practicing Catholicism in England was forbidden and those who refused to recognize the sovereignty of the monarch over the Pope would be executed usually by the horrific method of being hung, drawn, and quartered.
Sadly, the rebuilding scheme did not reshape London as it was originally hoped. They kept pretty much the old layout. Had some of the plans suggested, such as Wren’s, London would have rivaled Paris. Insurance companies were born out of this disaster to help aid those who lost homes or buildings to fire. They began to hire private firemen and to promote safety measures with their clients. This did lead to conflicts with local fire brigades and the private firemen hired by these insurance companies. Ultimately it led a combined fire unit called the London Fire Brigade in 1832, which began the process of permanent fire departments being established to put out fires.
As for the man who started the fire, Thomas Farriner, he would rebuild his shop on Pudding Lane and continue baking until he passed away in 1670. Members of the Worshipful Company of Bakers in 1986 apologized for the fire and put up a plaque on Pudding Lane that one of their own had caused the Great Fire of 1666.
Hitler attends a Wehrmacht victory parade in Warsaw on 5 October 1939 Public Domain
On 1 September 1939, German forces using the pretext they were acting in self-defense against Poland, invaded. The German infantry was not fully mechanized but had Panzers and fast-moving artillery that included truck mounted artillery. The German strategy was to quickly concentrate forces and encircle an enemy quickly. Thanks to the relatively flat terrain of Poland, it made it easy to move mobile infantry about. The invasion came one week after the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact on 23 August. This non-aggression pact meant neither side could assist the enemy of the other. A secret protocol to the agreement defined German and Soviet spheres in Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland. This protocol would not be proved until the Nuremberg Trials. So, when Germany invaded, Poland was already split with defined borders between the two countries.
With this pact, Poland signed defense agreements with Britain and France. Talks between those powers and Germany did take place and the invasion was held up until they were concluded. Hitler did not believe they would declare war, and if they did would be willing to compromise after the invasion of Poland. Germany wanted the restoration of Danzig (in Polish Gdansk) as a free city (it had a large German population), the Polish Corridor, and the safeguarding of Germans in Poland. Germany demanded that a Polish representative with the power to sign such an agreement be present.
The British, remembering what happened before when Czechoslovakia was forced to capitulate to the Germans, did not like that demand. When the Polish representative met with Ribbentrop on 31 Aug, he was dismissed when he had no power to sign. The Germans then claimed that Poland had rejected their demands and Hitler ordered the invasion for 1 September. The Germans were better prepared for war than the Polish. They had higher numbers of troops and had air superiority. Poland had older fighters while the bombers were more modern. They waited too late to upgrade so newer fighters and bombers would not be there when the Germany invaded. Poland had two armor brigades and its 7TP light tank was better armed than the German Panzer. But they only had 140 of those and 88 tanks they imported from Britain and France. The Polish Navy was a small fleet with destroyers, submarines and support vessels. Most of the surface vessels escaped and joined the British Royal Navy. Submarines did engage German shipping in the Baltic Sea but it was not successful. Polish merchant ships that did escape or elsewhere would join the allies and take part in wartime convoys.
By 3 October both German and Soviet forces had secured their spheres ending the Second Polish Republic. Both German and Soviet governments quickly took control of their territories, organizing and annexing, and setting up regional controls. Government and military leaders who did escape would form a military force in support of the Polish government-in-exile. In response to the invasion of Poland, Britain and France formally declared war on Germany on 3 September but little else (France did invade the Saar but quickly withdrew).
Surrender of Japan, Tokyo Bay, 2 September 1945: Representatives of the Empire of Japan on board USS Missouri (BB-63) during the surrender ceremonies. Army Signal Corps, Public Domain
On the battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay, the Japanese formally surrendered ending World War II. By this time Japan was no longer the military power it once was. The Battle of Midway in June 1942 had been the turning point when four Japanese aircraft carriers were sunk. Since then Japanese control over its captured territories were pushed back under massive effort of U.S. and Allied forces. By the summer of 1945, and with the capture of Okinawa, Japan was being blockaded and being bombed often. Plans for the invasion of Japan had been drawn up. After the bloody experience of capturing territory such as on Iwa Jima, it was expected to be a difficult invasion that would cost a lot of allied lives. However, the dropping of two atomic weapons on Japan in August on Hiroshima and Nagasaki changed things dramatically. Members of the Japanese War Council and Emperor Hirohito favored accepting the peace terms; some objected and acted to stop a surrender. On 15 Aug a coup was attempted against Prime Minister Suzuki, but it was crushed. At noon that day, and for the first time in Japanese history, Emperor Hirohito addressed the nation by radio. “We have resolved to pave the way for a grand peace for all the generations to come by enduring the unendurable and suffering what is insufferable.” The US and the allies accepted the surrender.
U.S. Army-Artillery retreat from Long Island-1776 Creator: Werner Company, 1899 (Akron, Ohio) U.S. Library of Congress, digital id#cph 3g03362 //hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3g03362
New York had a pivotal role in the American colonies and the American Revolution. Its central position made it vital to commerce and communication with the north and south colonies. This made it a key strategic location for both the British and American forces. General George Washington knew the British would target New York City, so he transferred the Continental Army to the city to turn back or slow down the British forces that would come. Fortifications were established in stages. Many of Washington’s troops were green, never been far from home, nor served in the military before. Washington split his forces between Brooklyn and Manhattan. This made reinforcement difficult and left a hole open at the Jamaica Pass the British would exploit.
When the British fleet arrived in June, it brought 20,000 British infantry that disembarked on Staten Island. The warships also could dominate the waterways that cut through New York City. The British sent 10,000 soldiers to Long Island, but Washington did not recombine his forces to counter it. Using a distraction, British General William Howe marched into position and on 27 August launch the attack on the Americans. Fighting raged on Guan Heights in the south and at Brooklyn Heights in the north, with the bloodiest fighting at Battle Pass where hand to hand fighting between Americans and Hessian mercenaries took place. The Americans are forced to withdraw to Brooklyn Heights. A countercharge led by 400 Marylanders would allow their comrades to escape. They would later be remembered as the Maryland 400 for their bravery. When the sun went down, the British had defeated the Americans but held off further attacks until the next day.
General Washington’s options were to surrender or evacuate at this point. While the battle had been lost, the spirit of the revolution was not dimmed. He ordered an evacuation of the troops at night, with British forces not that far away. By all accounts he was calm, authoritative, and in control of the situation. And he was aided in this task by a unique group of individuals called the Marbleheaders. They had worked together as a team fishing in the icy waters of the North Atlantic. So, they understood the weather, tides and time when sailing. Under the leadership of Colonel John Glover, this group using any sailing or rowing vessel they could find, worked to move Washington’s army across the East River to safety. It was no mean feat with British forces all around them. Oars were covered in cloth to prevent making noise in the water, everyone was told to stay quiet and not cough. They used minimal lighting and did not tell the soldiers what was going on until the last minute (this was to prevent the British from finding out).
They moved all the horses, ammunition, and cannon first. Then all the injured and wounded were transported. And then the evacuation began at 10 pm of the troops. Both the tide and winds were in their favor and the water was calm. When the tide changed, it became more difficult to keep the boats from going off-course on the return trips. The Marbleheaders had to really work hard to not loose control of their vessels. Around midnight, the winds shifted making the use of sloops (which used sails rather than oars) possible. Some chaos began to erupt at the embarkation point as soldiers started to rush to the boats. Washington seeing men trying to fight for a place on the boats, threatened to sink the ship unless the men who had pushed others aside got out. This restored the calm and shows how the proper use of leadership in such exacting times can work. The evacuation took all night and was still not done by the morning on 30 August. They had accomplished an impossible task of transporting thousands of men in just nine hours. Dawn though saw Americans still manning the trenches and it spelled doom for them when the British attacked.
Then quite suddenly a thick fog appeared and cloaked the escape. Those escaping in the early morning commented on how smooth the water was. The fog came at exactly the right time and place to remove the remaining American troops to safety across the East River. Washington oversaw the retreat and encouraged his men staying ashore until the last boat was being loaded. At that point he boarded and headed across the river. Thanks to the fog, and the lack of any alarm received by the British, Washington was able to evacuate his entire army leaving the British to find them gone.
While the British defeated Americans at the Battle of Brooklyn Heights (and would hold New York till 1783), the remarkable escape of Washington’s troops would be well regarded both for the incredible evacuation and the leadership of Washington himself. Far from dispiriting the troops or the cause, it became a source of great inspiration, and many believe the hand of God was involved as well. The fame of the Marbleheaders in being able to make the crossing possible would spread. More importantly confidence in George Washington as a capable military leader would result. He made a mistake in dividing his forces, but his remarkable leadership to save his troops would show he was a military leader both the people and his troops could rely on.
O’Donnell, P. K. (2017b). Washington’s Immortals: The Untold Story of an Elite Regiment Who Changed The Course Of The Revolution. Grove Press. This book does something rare and takes you back to those days with a skill and acumen few writers have. This is not a dry recitation of history, but an exploration of all the factors and people who played a role in the revolution that unfolded. It blends neatly stories about the many individuals, why they choose to revolt, military history of the battle, and very interesting details of a small band of hardy sailors that knew the waters well to give Washington the key to escape from New York. A must read if you want to delve into the people and their motivations for their desire to revolt. And a lot of military details skillfully intertwined so you never get bogged down.
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[This has been revised from previous version adding new information, correcting grammar and punctuation, and new source information.]
Vesuvius from Portici by Joseph Wright of Derby(1734–1797) Image:Public Domain
It was just around noon on 24 August 79 AD when Mount Vesuvius erupted with a massive 10-mile mushroom cloud sent into the stratosphere. It would become one of the deadliest volcanic eruptions in history. Ash and pumice would rain down over the entire area for twelve hours. Those who fled early on were able to survive what came next. A pyroclastic flow-a fast moving of hot gas mixed with volcanic matter-would sweep down from the mountain engulfing the area and killing everyone still there. The eruption was so massive and so powerful that geologists use the term Vesuvian to describe similar deadly eruptions of its kind.
The Bay of Naples was during this period of time known for its trade and luxury. Foods and other commodities were constantly being shipped in and out allowing the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum to have a high standard of living. The resort city of Stabiae was the place many went to relax in. Mount Vesuvius stood majestically above it all and no one considered the mountain could one day be a problem. There were no records of any eruptions during Roman history. There was an eruption during the Bronze Age that decimated settlements and even more violent eruptions in the far past. During the Roman period and the prior periods when the Greeks and others had settled in the areas, there were no eruptions. Stromboli was known to them and had been actively erupting long before the Romans. Stromboli erupts near its crater and, in most cases, causes no damage. So, Romans had no experience with volcanic eruptions like what happened in 79 AD.
There had been earthquakes that had occurred prior to the eruption. Excavations have determined they were in the process of repairing streets and underground plumbing damaged by them. However, they had no idea the tremors related to the nearby mountain. Indeed, they were caught by surprise when around 1 pm on 23 August when Vesuvius began erupting and spewing forth hot ash and pumice which began to rain down on the area. People close to the volcano began to flee and others, nervous about the situation, did as well. It is estimated about 20,000 people lived in both Pompeii and Herculaneum. As the hours went on, people could see what looked like fires on the mountain causing many more to likely flee. Pyroclastic flows started coming down near the mountain and then later consume settlements near them. The flows took down everything in their paths and killed everyone that was there. Ash and pumice continued to fall adding more problems for breathing and started damaging structures. Other earthquakes added damage and there was a minor tsunami in the Bay of Naples.
It was on the second day that Vesuvius would erupt so massively that it would give the name to such violent eruptions. The massive 10-mile mushroom cloud released 1,000 times more than the nuclear devices used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The massive amounts of ash and pumice ejected was about 1.5 million tons per second. The pyroclastic flows it generated on the second day swept through Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, and Stabiae killing anyone who had not fled with the ash and pumice burying them completely. The only surviving account as to what happened comes from the writings of Pliny the Younger who witnessed the eruption while staying west across the Bay of Naples. His uncle, Pliny the Elder, sailed over to Stabiae to find out what was going on. They had planned to stay the night, but the ash and pumice had made the houses unstable and decided to leave. Unfortunately, a plume of toxic gases came over the area and they had to flee. Pliny though was unable to escape and would die. They would find his body three days later exactly where he fell with no other injuries. Pliny the Younger would compile survivor accounts and his own observations. He provided them to Tacitus, who included it his writings.
The reaction of the Roman people was utter disbelief. No one had any inkling that Mount Vesuvius was deadly. And at least 20,000 people were believed dead. Many wealthy Romans and senators had residences there. It was a major loss for the Romans. Rome declared a mourning period, though its exact length is unknown but perhaps up to a year. Depictions from that time show Romans wearing dark robes to signify the mourning. The new Emperor Titus sent two consuls to Pompeii the set up any assistance that was needed. He ordered the treasury to aid the Compania region and rebuild Pompeii. Property was given to survivors whose relatives owned them prior to their deaths. And the people of Pompeii would be free from taxes for the next five years. However, due to the totality of the destruction, most gathered what possessions they could access and resettled elsewhere. The amount of ash that covered the cities was substantial, so they were abandoned. Thieves burrowed in the ash to locate valuables. And the city was used as a quarry with all the ash. Additionally marble and stone blocks were removed for other building projects along with other items.
“The Civita hill, which was covered in eruptive material, from which parts of the upper floors of buildings emerged, became an uninhabited site, though one where man returned to cultivate, and use the area as a burial ground. In certain cases, the structures which emerged were re-used for other purposes, such as in the case of the bakery which was constructed in a vaulted room which faces onto the southern crag of the plain, or the structures which were built over the Women’s Forum Baths. Along the restored road outside the city, several buried structures were also unearthed and repurposed. The most significant case is that of the Moregine baths, which were discovered during the construction of the Naples-Salerno motorway on the southern outskirts of modern Pompei: the building had been partly reused, with the laying of a clay slab floor over the ash layer from the eruption of AD 79, until another eruption buried it, causing the permanent abandonment of the complex.” (Parco archeologico di Pompei, 2018b)
Pompeii, with Vesuvius towering above.(2010) Author: Qfl247 (Wikimedia Commons)
Significant excavations beginning in 1927 on have revealed much of what life must have been like before the destruction. More somber were the finding of some 2,000 bodies. Volcanic ash hardened and preserved the outlines of their bodies. Once the flesh had gone, the outline remained but filled in with plaster revealed those final moments of their lives. And it was not pleasant at all.
Vesuvius is still an active volcano. Its last major eruption was in March 1944 and destroyed several small villages with lava. The eruption was seen from Naples and damaged (thanks to hot ash and other things) or destroyed up to 88 B-25 medium bombers based in Terzigno, Italy. The volcano is kept under constant watch to prevent anything on the scale of the eruption of 79 AD to the people who live under its shadow.
Sources
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2024i, August 17). Vesuvius | Facts, Location, & Eruptions. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Vesuvius
1888 lithograph of the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa. Image published as Plate 1 in The eruption of Krakatoa, and subsequent phenomena. Report of the Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society (London, Trubner & Co., 1888). Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
On 20 May 1883, Krakatau (Krakatoa)–a small volcanic island west of Sumatra in Indonesia–came alive with an eruption noticed by a passing German warship. Other eruptions would be noticed by commercial liners and those living on nearby islands for the next two months. Then on 26 Aug an enormous blast took place that destroyed nearly two-thirds of the island. Pyroclastic flows and huge tsunamis would sweep over nearby islands and coastlines. But the worst came the following morning, 27 Aug, at 05:30 am. Four eruptions would took place with the resulting sound heard over 3,000 miles away. Ash was propelled fifty miles into the air and would circulate around the globe creating colorful sunsets but also lowering temperatures worldwide by several degrees.
36,000 deaths resulted from the eruption and 31,000 were from the tsunamis created when much of the island fell into the water. The highest waves were 120 feet high when they washed over neighboring islands stripping them of people and vegetation. Pyroclastic flows that stretched as far as 40 miles claimed about 4,500.
This image shows that 2/3 of the island was destroyed in the 1883 eruption. Image by ChrisDHDR via Wikimedia Commons Public Domain
The Krakatau eruption of 1883 is considered one of the most violent volcanic activities in modern times and even recorded history. However volcanic activity continues in that area. In 1927, a submarine lava dome was detected in the area that had been destroyed by the eruption in 1883. A new island volcano began to emerge spewing ash. Other islands also started appearing as well but eroded away by the sea. Ultimately a fourth one appeared in August 1930 and was able to last. It was named Anak Krakatau and continues to grow taller each year. It is an active volcano and seemed similar to Stromboli in its eruptions. However more recent eruptions have resulted in volcanologists to warning people to keep a safe distance away. And more ominous is that a large lava dome is growing in its crater. Signs point to one day a very explosive event occurring at this volcano.
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On 23 August 1939 it was announced that Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union had signed a non-aggression treaty. The announcement was a complete surprise since Hitler had both in his writings and public speaking had denounced Communism and the Soviet Union. So why did this happen and what were its effects? Let’s find out.
Map of Europe and Western Asia in 1923 after World War I. Image via Wikimedia Commons
Both Germany and Russia had suffered in World War I. Germany was defeated by the Allies, lost its monarchy and colonial territories, and was ordered to pay huge reparations per the Versailles Treaty. Russia had gotten into the war to protect Serbia but was ill-equipped for a major war due to its limited resources and industrial capability. It suffered humiliating defeats during the war and its people suffered with reduced goods and services. This fed to unrest which led to Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate and allow a more democratic government to take over. Alas, that did not last as it continued in the war despite its unpopularity. This allowed the Communists, led by Lenin (who had been sent back to the country by Germany to foment chaos) to seize power and overturn the entire social and political structure of the country. In Germany, after a decade of vacillating leadership and discontent over inflation and Germany’s loss of status in the world, Adolf Hitler would lead the Nazi Party to victory after he was given the chancellorship in in 1933. Both Germany and Russia (now called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or just Soviet Union), were led by authoritarian governments that ruled with an iron fist.
The Soviet Union in its early days sought a promised world-wide revolution that never happened causing its leader Lenin and later Stalin to realize that building up the country first was needed before worldwide revolution. Hitler and the Nazi’s had a different view as they wanted to expand their country and restore pride in Germany. A new Germany was being formed with a clear ideology they were the people that would lead to change Europe and the world. By 1939, Germany was making its moves in Europe by invading Czechoslovakia. In 1938, they demanded and got a piece of Czechoslovakia when Britain and France, desperate to avoid war, forced Czechoslovakia to accept the deal breaking a treaty they had signed to defend it. Germany also annexed Austria that year as well uniting both countries. The invasion of Czechoslovakia told Britain and France that Hitler would not honor his agreements.
On the Russian side, Stalin had instituted programs to industrialize the country, but his brutal dictatorship had resulted in people being denounced, tried, and either imprisoned for years or executed. A climate of fear existed and not knowing whether someone had denounced you in secret made you wonder if you would come home that night. The Great Purge of 1936-1938 saw its officer corps depleted. The German Gestapo, feeding on Stalin’s paranoia, used the situation to use create documents that implicated many in the officer corps but also in government as well. The era became known for its show trials where the accused would be brought in, tried of a crime they didn’t commit, and faced imprisonment or death depending on the severity of the charge. Those who had become important members of government or close to Stalin that had been purged would be removed from the public record as well. Photos were retouched to show they were no longer walking, standing, or near Stalin or other people.
Stalin looked at expanding the Soviet Union by stealth or force into Europe. He hoped the war between the European nations would so weaken them so he could achieve his aims. Poland was, like Czechoslovakia a means to an end for both powers. Germany’s racial theory held the Polish people were, like the Jews, to be eliminated. For all the bad reasons, both Hitler and Stalin would come to terms and agree to a treaty that divided Poland into two spheres. Secret protocols to the pact indicated the demarcation lines and other things as well. The countries of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland were secretly divided up as well giving both Germany and the Soviet Union access to raw materials. This allowed Hitler to invade Poland in September. Russia would move to claim its share of Poland, which the German military was not quite happy about since in some areas they had to withdraw back to the lines agreed to in the secret protocols.
“Nothing more unbelievable could be imagined. Astonishment and skepticism turned quickly to consternation and alarm”. (Gunther, John (1940). Inside Europe. New York: Harper & Brothers.)
Stalin and Ribbentrop shaking hands over the newly signed pact between Germany and Soviet Union. August 23,1939 Source: German Federal Archive
The news of the agreement, popularly called the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, stunned the world. No one expected that Hitler would make a deal with Stalin. There had been some leaks suggesting of it, but no one thought it credible this would occur. The British and French had been in negotiations with the Soviets for months and were blindsided. Soviet propaganda heralded the agreement while others questioned secret protocols that were signed. Italy and the U.S. were given some limited information about them, but the full details were not disclosed. Soviet propaganda downplayed the previous attacks on Germany and Molotov himself made it clear they harbored no ill will. Nazi propaganda also had to do an about face as well. The Nazi’s had shut down the German Communist Party, imprisoned its leaders, and shut down its press. And they had nothing good to say about the Soviet Union either. Now they had to say everything was good with the hated Communist state.
Meanwhile the Baltic States began to worry how the rumored secret protocols would soon impact them. British and French attempts to meet with the Soviet negotiator over the agreement were rebuffed. Hitler said that with the treaty in place Britain should recognize Germany’s claims over Poland since it changed the situation from that of World War I. Instead, and to the German leader’s surprise, Britain announced a defense pact with Poland on 25 August 1939. Needless to say, Poland now realized it was being divided up by the two powers and war was coming.
How Central Europe would be divided up according the agreement. And what actually happened before Germany broke the treaty and attacked the Soviet Union. Author: Peter Hanula via Wikimedia Commons
The British and French governments had reached their end with Hitler; they no longer trusted him. In both countries the appeasement supporters diminished as reality set in that war was most certainly coming now with Germany. Neville Chamberlain, the chief supporter of the Munich Agreement a year before to avoid war, now realized his failure. He made it clear to Germany it would stand by Britain’s agreement to defend Poland. Hitler considered Chamberlain a fool and ordered the military to invade Poland as planned. The only question the Germans really had was whether those powers would do anything while they were attacking Poland. Both the British and French declared war on Germany when it invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 but took no immediate military action. It was a mistake that would prove costly for both countries later.
Aftermath
Stalin gambled that Hitler would focus on Europe and not on Russia. His goal was to build up the Soviet Union for war or to move in when his forces had subverted the country they wanted to take. Like many (including the German military high command) a two-front war was to be avoided. All of that went out of the window when Hitler decided he would invade Russia in 1941 under Operation Barbarossa. The goal of the operation was to remove and execute the leadership of Russia, take control of Russia, and make it a place for German resettlement. Stalin was not prepared for war and had discounted warnings Germany was about to invade as an attempt to get Russia to scuttle the treaty. Germany got the initial success and took territory easily defeating the military forces it encountered. However, they never took Moscow despite being twenty miles from it. And as time went on, faced more stiffer resistance and a military helped by American military equipment sent to help Russia defeat Hitler.
A vicious war broke out between the German and Russian forces creating now an Eastern Front that began to demand more resources than initially thought needed. The Soviet Union was getting supplies from the Allies using the dangerous North Atlantic to Murmansk route. And when the Allies landed in Europe in June 1944, this caused even more strain already on the limited resources Germany had. The Soviet troops started pushing back and ultimately forced Germany into retreat and ultimately to Berlin in 1945 where Hitler would commit suicide rather than be captured.
Stalin though did achieve his war aims in the end. Now with their troops in Poland and throughout Central Europe in countries they had liberated from Nazi rule, they would undermine the return of its former governments and subverted their political structure to ensure Communists would take charge. Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia all came to be controlled by the Soviet Union through governments that were installed and supported by them. It gave them access to sources of raw materials they had not had before and created a buffer around Russia. For people that had survived living under the yoke of Nazi controlled governments, it was simply swapping out one ideology for another with the same type of tyranny running things. Yugoslavia under Tito did break away from Moscow (he was fiercely independent but Communist) but that was about it.
The Iron Curtain, in black. Countries to the East of it are noted in Red and Warsaw Pact countries. NATO countries are blue, neutral states gray. Green depicts Yugoslavia which broke away from Moscow in 1948. Albania also had its own split starting in 1961 and in 1968 withdrew from the Pact but remained Communist. While a small part of Austria was occupied by the Soviet Union from 1945-1955, it did not join the Warsaw Pact and declared its neutrality. The small black dot in East Germany indicates West Berlin which was circled with the infamous Berlin Wall starting in 1961. Image: Sémhur via Wikimedia Commons
Until the fall of Communism began in 1991, these countries would remain either directly or indirectly controlled by Moscow through their governments. Some countries such as Czechoslovakia would break up (Czech Republic and Slovakia) after Communism ended. Yugoslavia would also break up as well into Bosnia, Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Romania had the most violent uprising (Poland had strikes that forced out the Communists) that ended with its leader being executed in the end. East Germany would be unified with West Germany ending the separation that had begun in 1945.
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Babe Ruth, 23 July 1920. Original Author: Irwin, La Broad, & Pudlin U.S. Library of Congress digital id#cph.3g07246 Public Domain
In the annals of baseball, Babe Ruth is considered one of the greatest sluggers of all time. Called “the Bambino”, the “Sultan of Swat”, or just Babe Ruth, his name is etched forever in baseball history. His professional career spans 22 seasons from 1914-1935. Starting out as a left-handed pitcher for the Boston Red Sox, Babe Ruth showed he had a talent as a slugger hitting an impressive. 29 homeruns for the Red Sox in 1919. That beat the record of 24 set in 1884 by Ned Williamson of the Chicago White Sox. Under the Red Sox, he was in three World Series including the one in 1919. Boston fans were thrilled with the Babe, but the team owner Harry Frazee, needing cash for his theatre, decided to sell the champion team to raise cash. Babe Ruth was traded to the New York Yankees. The Boston Red Sox would not win another World Series until 2004. During that long drought, it was called the Curse of the Bambino.
Baseball suffered a major crisis over the Black Sox Scandal. The 1919 World Series between the Chicago White Sox and the Cincinnati Reds was tainted by allegations that eight members of the Sox were paid to lose by a gambling syndicate. Evidence was presented to a grand jury and they indicted the 8 players. Key evidence disappeared and signed confessions of two players were recanted. The trial ended up in an acquittal but the new commissioner of baseball, former federal judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis, banned all eight from baseball for life. America was stunned by the conduct of the 8 players. While Landis brought the hammer down to clean up baseball, the game needed a reboot for people had turned away from the game.
And it was in New York where a former pitcher, now outfielder, and who could swing a bat like no one else had seen before, would make baseball once again popular for people to pay to see. Crowds would come to see this slugger, with the impossibly shaped body, send balls out of the park. Attendance figures soared for the Yankees. And the home runs would continue to come but the old Polo Grounds, where both the New York Giants and Yankees called home, was a problem. There were tensions between the teams and the Polo Grounds owner decided not to renew the Yankees lease. The Yankees would build their own stadium in the Bronx which opened in 1923. The stadium was designed to accommodate Ruth to make it easier for the lefthanded batter to hit home runs. He would end that year with 41 home runs and the Yankees would win the title. Yankee Stadium would be called later the “House that Ruth Built.”
He would continue to play with the Yankees until 1934. By then age had begun to take its toll on his skills. He also was well known for his excessive drinking, food binges, and frequently cheating on his wife Helen, who he had married in 1914. They were not seen together often, and the last time was during the 1926 World Series. Since both were Catholic, they never divorced but did separate and lived separate lives until her death in 1929. She was living with a dentist Edward Kinder, and everyone assumed she was his wife. Her death caused headlines. At her funeral, the Babe was seen sobbing. He would later marry Claire Merritt Hodgson, an actress and model. She would impose on him structure which curbed his notorious drinking, binging, and adulterous behavior.
Ruth had hoped to become a team manager in his twilight years; he wanted to be the Yankees manager. However, that was not to be. He was offered by the team owner to manage the Yankees minor league team, but he turned that down. Finally, the Boston Braves, in desperate need to improve attendance, would get Ruth. He was traded to the Boston Braves not as a player but to become team vice-president and assistant manager to its skipper Bill McKechnie. The trade was concluded on 26 February 1935. However, his declining skills showed up in playing. And it turned out his vice president position was nothing more than doing public relations for the team. He also realized that Boston Braves owner Emil Fuchs was not going to make him manager. And that he was supposed to invest some of his own money in the team. He asked to be let go but was persuaded to stay on until after Memorial Day.
And it was on 25 May 1935 Babe Ruth would make the last home run of his career. It was the third game of the series between the Boston Braves and the Chicago Cubs. He would hit a soaring home run that went out of Forbes Field. It sailed over the right field upper deck and out of the park. It was the first time anyone had hit a fair ball out of the park in that area. Ruth was urged to end his career right then, but he had given his word and so went to Cincinnati and Philadelphia. His final appearance in Major League Baseball was in Philadelphia. It was a doubleheader, and the Braves lost both. He retired on 2 June 1935. The Braves had the lowest winning percentage in National League history. The team was broke and so was its owner. The Braves would be handed over to the National League to find new owners.
Ruth wanted to manage a team but that would never come. His wife said he would sit by the phone waiting for a call. Of all the players who were the first inductees to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1936, he was the only one not asked to manage a major league baseball team. Many attributed this to his days when he was drinking and was not always keen on being disciplined as a reason. Whatever the reason, Ruth would never manage or play for a team again. He would continue to be seen in public playing golf and some exhibition games. His next major appearance though was on 4 July 1939 for Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day. The 1927 Yankees team assembled to honor the great first baseman who was forced into retirement when he contracted ALS or often called today, Lou Gehrig’s Disease. Ruth appeared in the 1942 film The Pride of the Yankees as himself. During World War II he made many personal appearances to support the war effort.
In 1946 Ruth was diagnosed with an inoperable tumor at the base of his skull. Because of his fame and wealth, he was able to get treatment and even access to experimental treatments. Taking both drugs and radiation treatments, Ruth hoped it would allow him to live more years. On 27 April 1947 it was Babe Ruth Day as declared by the new commissioner of baseball Happy Chandler. Ruth attended and many of his former teammates were there to speak in his honor. By then his usual load voice had been turned into a soft whisper by the cancer. He would next appear at Yankee Stadium on 13 June 1948 for the 25th-anniversary celebration of Yankee Stadium-the House that Ruth built. He was visibly different looking thin and using a bat as a cane. The photo taken of him by Nat Fein of him standing near home plate, leaning on the cane, and looking out to what is dubbed “Ruthville” became etched in the minds of millions who saw the photo. And it would win a Pulitzer Prize for Fein.
“Babe Ruth Bows Out”, photograph of Babe Ruth during a ceremony at Yankee Stadium to retire his number on 13 June 1948. This photograph won the 1949 Pulitzer Prize for Photography. Author: Nathaniel Fein Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
On 16 August 1948 at 8:01 PM, the Babe, born George Herman Ruth, would pass away at age 53. Many were already outside the hospital during his final days. And his death came quietly as he died in his sleep. Memorial celebrations took three days. His body was taken to the rotunda of Yankee Stadium and visitors could view the Sultan of Swing one last time in his open casket. It would stay there for 2 days. Between 77,000-100,00 are believed to have past the casket. His funeral mass was celebrated by Francis Cardinal Spellman at St. Patrick’s Cathedral. The cathedral was packed and an even larger crowd outside estimated to be around 75,000. He was buried at Gate of Heaven Cemetery in Hawthorne, New York. His second wife is interred next to him.
A granite memorial to Babe Ruth was unveiled on 19 April 1949 near to where similar tributes were erected for Lou Gehrig and Miller Huggins. Due to remodeling between 1974-1975, the area was enclosed and after that became known as Monument Park. When the new Yankee Stadium opened in 2008, Monument Park was moved to the new stadium but unlike the old stadium, not seen from the field. Spectators can visit this area up to 45 minutes before first pitch. His birthplace in Baltimore has been renovated and is now the Babe Ruth Birthplace and Museum.
Ruth’s contribution to baseball was significant. World War I, the Spanish Flu epidemic, and the Black Sox Scandal all contributed to a sour mood in the early 1920’s. And then this larger-than-life figure appears. Unlike Ty Cobb, who was almost always in a sour mood and not always having good relations with fans, Ruth came across as something completely different. He could swing the bat like no other, flamboyant and flashy, totally unstoppable. He became not just the Yankee’s best hitter, bunter, and base stealer but a symbol when people needed to take their minds off from other things. Seeing Ruth hit a home run was a joyous event where thousands cheered. He transcended the sport and became an icon. Home runs were no longer rare but expected. In the old days home runs were rare, but no more.
Ruth also was an American success story having come up from without any advantage of wealth or social standing. You didn’t need to come from wealth to play ball, you just needed the skill to play the game well. And many young kids would make it a dream to head for a baseball team so they too could be a success like Ruth, Gehring and so many others. In a time when most never saw him play, they read the stories of his feats in the newspapers or heard it on the radio once stations started carrying baseball games. And perhaps one of the strangest-and perhaps sweetest ways-he is remembered is the Baby Ruth candy bar. Marketed originally by Curtis Candy Company and named for the daughter of Grover Cleveland, it came out in 1921 and so many assumed it was named for the famous ball player. In 1995 though the Ruth estate (which manages all licensing of Babe Ruth products and images) licensed his likeness for the candy bar. It became the official candy of Major League Baseball in 2005. And in 2018, President Donald Trump awarded Babe Ruth (posthumously) the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
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