Category Archives: History

History

Remembering the Victims of the Manson Cult (8-9 Aug 1969)

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Beginning near midnight on August 8 and in the early morning of August 9 1969, Sharon Tate, the wife of movie director Roman Polanski, was killed along with four others in their Beverly Hills home. The murders made national headlines and two days later a second series of murders would occur. The savage murders were done by followers of Charles Manson, and the murders would make him a criminal icon.

Charles Manson was born in 1934 to an unwed 16-year-old mother; he would never know his father. After his mother was imprisoned for armed robbery, he went to live with an aunt and uncle in West Virginia. He would spend much of his youth getting into trouble and being put into prison in his early adult years. He moved to California in 1967 after being released from jail. In San Francisco he used his charm and other things to attract a small group of followers from the youth rebelling the standards of the day. By 1968, he had become the head of a group who called themselves his “Family.”

Manson’s beliefs were an odd mix of religion, fringe psychology, and even science fiction. He believed in a coming apocalyptic race war that would devastate the country. Blacks would rise to kill whites but would still need a leader after it was done. Manson would become that leader and his Family would be the nucleus of a new order. He would adopt the term “Helter Skelter,” taken from the Beatles’ record White Album, to refer to this order.

While he was not present when the murders occurred, he certainly planned and directed it. Roman Polanski was not the target on 8 August, and he was out of town during that period. His intended target was Terry Melcher, a music producer that had been introduced to him through a chance encounter with Brian Wilson of the Beach Boys. Manson was a singer-songwriter and one of his songs had been performed by them (though uncredited for it). Melcher considered and then decided to not produce a record by him. Melcher had leased the home that Polanski and his pregnant wife Sharon Tate now occupied.

Sharon Tate, 1967
Author Unknown
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Sharon Tate was a fledging actress who had come to fame in Valley of the Dolls (1967) and in the British horror-comedy The Fearless Vampire Killers (1967). While her husband Roman was off in Europe shooting a movie, Tate, now eight months pregnant, was living in the home with his friend Wojciech Frykowski and his girlfriend Abilgail Folger (coffee heiress). On 8 August Manson ordered Charles “Tex” Watson and several other members of the family to go there and kill everyone as gruesome as possible. They would arrive near midnight or just a little after and encounter Steve Parent, an 18-year-old boy visiting the caretaker, in his car and kill him. Then Watson, Susan Atkins, Patricia Krenwinkel, and Linda Kasabian entered the main house. There were four people in the home-Tate, Frykowski, Folger and celebrity hairstylist Jay Sebring. They were assembled in the living room.

Sebring was both shot and stabbed to death. Frykowski and Folger managed to escape but were tracked down and killed by Krenwinkel and Watson. Sharon Tate was stabbed to death after being hung from a ceiling beam. The rope was found wrapped around her neck and there were no post-mortem injuries found. Her blood was used to write the word “PIG” on the front door. The following night Manson ordered that grocery store executive Leno LaBianca and his wife, Rosemary be murdered. Manson was involved in this action as he and Watson tied up and robbed. He then left with three others of his Family leaving Watson, Leslie van Houten, and Patricia Krenwinkel in the home. They stabbed the couple to death and left words written in blood on the walls.

The murders shocked Los Angeles considering that Frykowski had been stabbed fifty times as well as shot. The police were baffled as to the motives and who the assailants were. The two crimes were not connected at first. There was a belief that a drug transaction gone bad may have led to the gruesome deaths at the Polanski home. What broke the case and connected both murders were the arrests of Manson’s family at the Spahn Ranch in Death Valley for vehicle theft and burning equipment. One of those arrested would implicate Susan Atkins in a murder.

Charles Manson, April 1968 mugshot
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Atkins apparently boasted of the Tate murders to cellmates. All the killers would be arrested including Charles Manson. Although he did not personally commit the murders, he ordered his Family to do them. All were brought to trial in June 1970. Linda Kasabian was given full immunity and was the main prosecution witness. All were convicted of murder and given the death penalty. However, those sentences were changed to life imprisonment when capital punishment was abolished in 1972. Although eligible for parole at various times, none of their requests were granted. Charles Manson would die in prison in 2017 at age 83.

Update 10 Aug 2026

Patricia Krenwinkel was denied parole in 2025 and remains incarcerated.

Update 10 Aug 2025

Leslie Van Houten, convicted of first-degree murder and whose sentence was commuted to life imprisonment after the death penalty was declared unconstitutional by the California Supreme Court, was paroled in 2023 after serving 50 years in jail. The Parole Board determined that there had been sufficient rehabilitation. Several victim’s families opposed the parole.

Bill Chappell, “A Former Manson Family Member Is Free, After Her Parole Was Reversed 5 Times,” Lakeshore Public Media| Public Broadcasting for Northwest Indiana and Chicagoland, July 12, 2023, https://www.lakeshorepublicmedia.org/npr-news/2023-07-12/a-former-manson-family-member-is-free-after-her-parole-was-reversed-5-times.

 Patricia Krenwinkel, who like Van Houten was sentenced to die for first degree murder but commuted to life in prison, was recommended for parole in 2022. Governor Newsom rejected the finding. She was once again recommended for parole in May 2025. However, the process requires a 150-day review period where the full California Board of Parole along with the governor concur for it to be effective. She has been denied parole 14 times.

“Manson Family Killer Patricia Krenwinkel Recommended for Parole 56 Years After Infamous Murders,” New York Post, June 2, 2025, https://nypost.com/2025/06/02/us-news/manson-family-killer-patricia-krenwinkel-recommended-for-parole/.

Sources

Crime Scene Photos

Egan, Leigh. “Manson Family Cielo Drive Murders: Graphic Crime Scene Photos [GRAPHIC].” Crime Online. Last modified January 28, 2019. Accessed August 10, 2026. https://www.crimeonline.com/2018/01/11/manson-family-cielo-drive-murders-graphic-crime-scene-photos-graphic/.

WARNING. This site contains the actual crime scene photos including photos of the victims taken at the scene as well as in the morgue. Viewer Discretion Advised.

Suggested Reading

[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]

Bugliosi, V., & Gentry, C. (2001). Helter Skelter: The True Story of the Manson Murders. W. W. Norton & Company. I highly recommend this book as it covers all the details of the case. And a lot of background investigation as well. The author was the actual prosecutor on the case.

Guinn, J. (2014). Manson: The Life and Times of Charles Manson. Simon and Schuster.

Statman, A., & Tate, B. (2013). Restless souls: The Sharon Tate Family’s Account of Stardom, the Manson Murders, and a Crusade for Justice. It Books.

History

Remembering History: Spanish Armada Defeated Ending Spain’s Invasion of Britain (8 August 1588)

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Defeat of the Spanish Armada (Philip James de Loutherbourg, 1796)
Public Domain

[Important Note :England was still under the old Julian calendar in 1588, so the original date is shown in parentheses. England adopted it in 1752 and had to skip ahead 11 days accounting for the difference. Wherever possible, the original and new date are shown.]

On 8 Aug 1588 (29 July 1588) naval forces of England and Spain engaged in an 8-hour furious battle off the coast of France that determined the fate of both countries control of the seas. Spain had created the armada to not only gain control of the English Channel but also to land an invasion force in England. England since the early 1580s had been conducting raids against Spanish commerce and had supported Dutch rebels in the Spanish Netherlands. The other reason was to restore Catholicism that had been outlawed since the reign of King Henry VIII.

The invasion fleet was authorized by King Philip II and was completed in 1587 but delayed by a raid by Sir Francis Drake on the Armada’s supplies. It did not depart until 29 May 1588 (May 19, 1588) The fleet consisted of 130 ships under the command of the Duke of Medina-Sidonia. It had 2,500 guns, 8,000 seamen, and 20,000 soldiers. The Spanish ships though were slower than their English counterparts and lighter armed as well despite their guns. Their tactic was to force boarding when their ships were close enough. They believed with the superior numbers of Spanish infantry they could overwhelm the English ships.

The English were commanded by Charles Howard, 2nd Baron Howard of Effingham. Like his counterpart, he was an admiral with not much sea experience but proved to be the better leader. His second in command was Sir Francis Drake. The English fleet was at its height 200 ships but in actual combat was at most 100. Only 40 were warships and the rest smaller, but they were armed with heavy artillery that were able to fire at longer ranges without having to get close to the enemy to be effective. The English strategy was to bombard their enemy from a distance and not give them the opportunity to get close and possibly board their ships (which had a smaller number of soldiers aboard than the Spanish had).

As the Spanish Armada made its way, it would be harassed by English ships that bombarded them at a distance, negating Spanish attempts to board. The Armada anchored near Calais, France on 27 July (16 July). The Spanish forces on land were in Flanders and would take time to get to Calais. However, since there was no safe port and enemy Dutch and English ships patrolled the coastal shallows, it meant those troops had no safe way to get to the Armada.

Around midnight on 7- 8 Aug 1588 (28-29 July), the English sent 8 fire ships into the anchored Spanish fleet. The Spanish were forced to quickly scatter to avoid the fire ships. This meant the Armada formation was now broken making them easier targets for the English to attack. They closed to effective range and attacked. Surprising to the English, the return fire was mostly small arms. It turns out most of the heavy cannons had not been mounted. And those that were did not have properly trained crews on how to reload. Three Spanish ships were sunk or driven ashore. Other ships were battered and moved away. The English also were low on ammunition, so they had to drop back and follow the Spanish fleet.

The Spanish fleet had to flee north and around Scotland and from there head back to Spain. The English fleet turned back for resupply. It was a long road back to Spain for the Armada. Autumn had arrived and gales in the North Atlantic made passage tough. Ships were lost to bad weather, navigational errors, foundered near Ireland, and possibly battle damage as well. Only 60 of the 130 survived with an estimated loss of 15,000 men. The English losses were much smaller with fewer men wounded or killed in battle. It appears most of the deaths that came later were due to disease (possibly scurvy). Damages to the English ships were negligible.

Destrucción de la Armada Invencible by José Gartner (1866–1918)
1892
Original located at Museo de Málaga, Spain
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Significance

With the defeat of the Spanish Armada, England was made safe from invasion. The Dutch rebels the English backed in the Spanish Netherlands were saved as well. Spain up to that point had been the greatest European power, so it was a major blow to their prestige that would have ramifications down the road for them. Also, it heralded a major change for naval battles. This was the first major naval gun battle where the combatants fought at a distance rather than closing and boarding. Warships that could move quickly and had artillery that fire at long range would become the norm on the seas from that point on. England would now become a major world power. Spain still was in the game for several decades (the English were not successful either in trying their own invasion) and was still a major colonial power. England and Spain formally ended their conflict in 1604. Spain, however, would eventually go into decline as England and other European powers would successfully expand into Asia and establish their own colonies and trade routes.

Sources

Cartwright, Mark, and Cornelis Claesz Van Wieringen. “Spanish Armada.” World History Encyclopedia (September 21, 2023). https://www.worldhistory.org/Spanish_Armada/.

“Spanish Armada.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified July 9, 2026. Accessed July 29, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Armada-Spanish-naval-fleet#ref284702.

“The Spanish Armada, 1588.” Historic UK. Last modified February 6, 2025. Accessed July 29, 2026. https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/Spanish-Armada/.

“Elizabeth I and the Spanish Armada.” Royal Museums Greenwich. Accessed July 29, 2026. https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/royal-history/elizabeth-i-spanish-armada.

“Spanish Armada Defeated | August 8, 1588 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified May 28, 2025. Accessed July 29, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/august-8/spanish-armada-defeated.

Suggested Reading
[As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]

Fernández-Armesto, F. (1989). The Spanish Armada: The Experience of War in 1588. Oxford University Press, USA. This is written from the Spanish point of view. Some have criticized it as glorifying the Spanish Armada, which failed all its strategic and tactical aims. Worth reading though to see it viewed outside of the normal British view on the event.

History, C. (2020). History of Spain: A Captivating Guide to Spanish History, Starting from Roman Hispania Through the Visigoths, the Spanish Empire, the Bourbons, and the War of Spanish Independence to the Present.

Martin, C., & Parker, G. (1999). The Spanish Armada: Revised Edition. Manchester University Press. This is an update to an earlier book by the same authors. The prior book was well researched and considered the standard for this subject. This revised edition has updated information both from Spanish Armada shipwrecks that have been found and more archival data found. If you really want to know the full details as to what led up to the battle, the battle itself, and its aftermath, this would be the book to read.

Sheane, M. (2023). Ireland, 1588: Wreck of the Spanish Armada. A H Stockwell Limited.

History

Murder History: The Case of Lizzie Borden

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The sensational murder trial of Lizzie Borden would galvanize the nation but ended up in her acquittal in 1893.

 

Lizzie Borden
Circa 1889, photographer unknown
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Lizzie Borden took an axe
And gave her mother forty whacks;
And when she saw what she had done
She gave her father forty-one.
(Nursery Rhyme)

Lizzie Borden and her older sister Emma were the daughters of a well-to-do businessman Andrew Borden of Fall River, Massachusetts. Their mother died when they were young, and he married Abby Gray who ended up raising them to adulthood. Their father, though wealthy, was not liked by a lot of people in the community. He was seen as both parsimonious (a fancy word meaning excessively frugal) and dour. Both daughters grew to dislike their stepmother believing she was trying to enrich herself over their father’s money. Lizzie was well liked in the community and involved in charitable works. Both daughters helped manage their father’s properties.

The home of Lizzie Borden, 92 Second St, Fall River, MA 1892
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

On Thursday 4 August 1892, Andrew Borden left home to conduct business. In the home was the maid Bridget Sullivan, his wife Abby, and his daughter Lizzie. Emma was out of the home on business of her own. Andrew would return later than morning and lie down on the couch to take a nap. Andrew would die on the couch around 11:15 am. His head had been repeatedly hit by a sharp object and there was a considerable amount of blood. Police were summoned and it was during this time it was discovered the stepmother was found dead face down in the guest room. Her head had been horribly mutilated. Police interviewed Lizzie but she gave conflicting statements. A search of the basement found two hatchets, two axes, and a hatchet-head with a broken handle with the latter the suspected murder weapon. It appeared to have been coated with ash and other things to make it look like it had not been used for a while.

The police failed to make a full search of the house at the time. Lizzie went to stay with a friend of her sister. Later she was seen by a police officer detailed to guard the house entering the cellar with this friend and seemed to be hunched over a sink. The police learned that Lizzie had tried to get hydrocyanic acid in a diluted form from a drugstore. There had been a recent mysterious illness in the home that raised the possibility of poisoning. Both bodies were tested and found no poison in them. The illness may have been food poisoning from contaminated meet rather than a deliberate poisoning. However, since Andrew Borden was not well liked, his wife had suspected that perhaps someone in Fall River had poisoned them.

The police focused on Lizzie Borden as the likely suspect due to her contradictory statements, the attempt to purchase a poison, the burning of a dress, and the hatchet-head that was found during a more thorough search later. She would be arrested and formally indicted in December 1892. However, her trial would not begin until June 1893. Just before her trial started, another sensational murder done with an axe occurred. It bore striking similarities to the Borden case, but a suspect was caught and arrested. It was on the minds of many in the courtroom when the trial started.

Lizzie Borden during her trial. The man on her right is her attorney, George Robinson, former governor and well known political figure of the day.
llustration in Frank Leslie’s illustrated newspaper, v. 76 (1893 June 29), p. 411.
Source: B.W. Clinedinst via Wikimedia Commons

Unfortunately for the prosecution, all the evidence they had was circumstantial. There was no direct proof she had handled the axe that killed the Borden parents. Nor was the burning of a dress she said had been covered in paint as well proof she did the murder. While everyone knew she and her sister did not like her stepmother much, proving she had done the murders was hard to do. The police had failed to gather any fingerprints. This had become more common especially in Europe, but the local police didn’t believe in its use. So, they lacked any fingerprint evidence that might have helped in prosecuting Lizzie Borden. And the jury as a result acquitted her on 20 June 1893 since the evidence was not strong enough to convict on.

Aftermath
Lizzie Borden would continue to live in Fall River for the rest of her life, though in a different home with her sister Emma. Both sisters, after all the probate was concluded, received their inheritance from their father’s estate. Lizzie changed her name to Lizbeth A. Borden. The new home they moved into was more modern and they also have lived -in servants and a coachman. Fall River mostly ostracized her and apparently had little involvement in the community afterwards. Her sister Emma would move out in 1905 after they argued over a party Lizbeth held for an actress. Emma would never see her sister again. Both sisters remained reclusive until they both died. Lizbeth died of pneumonia on 1 June 1927. Emma died 9 days later at her home in New Hampshire from chronic nephritis because of a fall she suffered ironically on the day her sister died. Both are buried in the family plot at the Oak River Cemetery in Fall River.

Speculation over the murders continues to this day with Lizzie the prime suspect. Motivations for the murders, aside from disliking the stepmother are many. Highly speculative theories exist without much or any proof offered. There is an unproven allegation that the maid on her deathbed many years later that she had changed her testimony to help Borden. John Morse, Lizzie’s maternal uncle, was sleeping in the house the night before, was also considered a suspect by the police but had an alibi that disproved in their eyes he was the murderer. The maid Bridget Sullivan is considered a suspect as well. It is thought she may have gotten angry with them over tasks they asked her to do and killed them. One author has suggested it was William Borden, Andrew Borden’s illegitimate son who had tried to extort money from his father Emma too is considered a possibility as she secretly snuck into the house, killed her parents, and then quickly returned to Fairhaven to receive the telegram of her parents’ murders.

The Borden House still stands as both a museum and a bed and breakfast. The Fall River Historical Society has pieces of evidence used in the trial at the Fall River Historical Society.

Sources

Crime Museum, LLC. “Lizzie Borden – Crime Museum.” Crime Museum. Last modified September 15, 2025. Accessed August 4, 2026. https://www.crimemuseum.org/crime-library/famous-murders/lizzie-borden/.

“Lizzie Borden.” Biography, November 30, 2021. https://www.biography.com/crime/lizzie-borden.

“Lizzie Borden’s Parents Found Dead | August 4, 1892 |.” HISTORY. Last modified July 31, 2025. Accessed August 4, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/august-4/borden-parents-found-dead.

Linder, Douglas O. “The Trial of Lizzie Borden: An Account.” Famous Trials. Accessed August 4, 2026. https://famous-trials.com/lizzieborden/1437-home.

Lizzie Borden. “Official Lizzie Borden House | America’s Most Haunted House.” Lizzie Borden. Last modified July 28, 2026. Accessed August 4, 2026. https://lizzie-borden.com/.

Videos

48 Hours. “‘Lizzie Borden Took an Axe’ | Full Episode.” Video. YouTube, December 6, 2022. Accessed August 4, 2026. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XYDiEcyDUBU.

Suggested Reading
[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]

Miller, Sarah. The Borden Murders: Lizzie Borden and the Trial of the Century. Yearling, 2019.

Robertson, Cara. The Trial of Lizzie Borden. Simon & Schuster, 2020.

Spencer, William D. Lizzie Borden Uncut: A Casebook of Theories, 2022.

 

History

Remembering History: Warsaw Uprising Begins (1 Aug 1944)

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Rare Agfacolor photo (invention from 1936) dated August 1944 taken in Warsaw, Poland in the Old Town Market Place during Warsaw Uprising in August 1944
Ewa Faryaszewska (1920-1944)
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

 

On 1 Aug 1944 Poles in Warsaw launched a major uprising against the Nazi occupation. The Soviet Army had advanced to the Vistula River on the eastern suburb of Warsaw prompting the revolt. Polish General Tadeusz Bor-Komorowski, commander of the Home Army (an underground resistance group of around 40,000), had ties to the government-in-exile in London, which was anti-communist. The hope was to gain at least partial control of Warsaw before the Soviets arrived.

By this time, the German Army had been pushed back considerably from its gains in Russia. And their taking Warsaw seemed likely. Despite this, Adolf Hitler ordered that the uprising be suppressed at all costs. The Nazi SS directed the defense force and engaged in brutal street fighting. The Polish Home Army fought back hard despite having limited supplies and no support from the Soviet Army (which caused friction between Poland and the Soviet Union for years).

The Red Army did capture several bridgeheads across the Vistula River in preparation to take Warsaw but held back doing anything more. Only under intense pressure from British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and American President Franklin Roosevelt did Stalin relent and allow Allies to drop supplies to the rebels. But it was too late as by that time, both the rebels and the citizens ran out of food, supplies, and medical supplies. The uprising came to an end on 2 October when the remaining forces surrendered. The revolt had lasted 63 days but the cost for both sides was high. An estimated three-fourths of the Home Army died along with 200,000 civilians. The Germans suffered 10,000 dead, 9,000 wounded, and 7,000 missing. In keeping with their dislike of the Polish people (they were seen as just a notch above the Jews but were slated for either slavery or death by the Nazis) the survivors were deported.

Deploying demolition squads, most of the remaining intact buildings in Warsaw would be destroyed over the next several months. All of Warsaw’s treasures were looted, burned, or destroyed. Meanwhile the Red Army sitting outside Warsaw did nothing to stop the Germans. They would not move until January 1945 when their final offensive was launched. On 17 January 1945, the ruins of Warsaw were liberated by the Soviets who faced little or no opposition. Thus, making it easy for them to establish a Communist state in Poland. After suffering from Nazi occupation, the Polish people would suffer a longer one under the Communists.

 

Sources

Suggested Reading
[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]

Bialoszewski, Miron. A Memoir of the Warsaw Uprising. New York Review of Books, 2015.

Bruce, George. The Warsaw Uprising: 1 August – 2 October 1944, 2021.

Davies, Norman. Rising ’44: The Battle for Warsaw. Penguin Books, 2005.

Richie, Alexandra. Warsaw 1944: Hitler, Himmler, and the Warsaw Uprising. Picador, 2019.

History, Miscellaneous

Welcome to August!

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Medieval illustration of men harvesting wheat with reaping-hooks
Circa 1310
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

 

Welcome to August!

August is named for the first Roman emperor Augustus. It used to be called Sextillis meaning sixth as on the old Roman calendar the year started in March. It is the last full month of summer in the Northern Hemisphere but in the southern winter. August is known as a major month for vacations and with so many people off traveling, one of the busiest months for the tourist season.

The old August adage is a “Dry August and warmth harvest no harm” reflects how the month signals the start of the harvest season. Cantaloupe, cucumber, corn, eggplant, tomatoes, bell and jalapeno peppers are often harvested during this time. The Celts used celebrate Lammas Day (also called Lugnasad) on August 1. It was a festival marking the wheat and corn harvest. The early Catholic church in England kept it as a harvest festival as well. Loaves of bread made from the new grain would be consecrated in a loaf-mass.

For those looking to the skies, the Perseid Meteor Shower that began in July continues to 24 August. The best viewing days (and you need to be away from the cities to see it best) are 9-13.

The August moon is known as both the Sturgeon and Grain Moon. Other names include Fruit and Barley as well. Up in Norway August is particularly noteworthy as the town of Ny-Ålesund is the most northernmost town in the world and for them summer has been one very long day. Since April the sun has stated above the horizon but Polar Day usually occurs near or on 24 August. On that day, the sun remains visible for the entire day (24 hours) without ever setting. This is due to the tilt of the Earth axis. A lot of tourists come to visit the town where the sun stays up late into the night and of course Polar Day itself. The flip side is that from late October till mid-February, the sun does not rise making it one very long night.

For More Information

Boeckmann, Catherine. “Month of August 2026: Fun Facts and Holidays!” Almanac.Com. Last modified July 30, 2026. https://www.almanac.com/content/month-august-holidays-fun-facts.

Rehberger, Georg. “August: Eighth Month of the Year.” TimeandDate. Accessed August 3, 2026. https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/months/august.html.

History

Remembering Saint Titus Brandsma (26 Jul 1942)

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Saint Titus Brandsma was a Dutch Carmelite priest who was executed by the Nazis on 26 July 1942 at Dachau concentration camp in 1942.

Carmelite priest Titus Brandsma (1881-1942)
Circa 1920’s (author unknown)
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Born Anno Sjoerd Brandsma on 23 February 1881 to Titus and Tjitsje Postma in Oegeklooster, Friesland, Netherlands. His parents ran a dairy farm and were Catholic in an area that was predominantly Protestant (Calvinist).  He grew up in a family of three sisters and one brother. Of the six children, five would join religious life. Only one daughter would not do so. At age 11, he attended a preparatory school for boys in Megen for those considering a priestly or religious vocation. The minor seminary was run by the Franciscans.

After graduation, he entered the Carmelite order in 1898 and took the name Titus (his father’s name) as his religious name. Unlike most Carmelites who focus on living a contemplative life of prayer, he felt called to do more. He was drawn to journalism and writing that would become his second vocation. He was ordained in 1905 and later received a doctorate in philosophy after studying in Rome. He would return home and help found the Catholic University of Nijmegen in 1923. He would teach and later become its head. As the 1930’s drew closer, he became increasingly concerned with the rise of Nazism and antisemitism in Germany. He penned articles calling it a black lie and repeated his criticisms in public lectures.

His superiors in Rome decided in 1935 to conduct a lecture tour of Carmelite foundations in the United States. To better learn how to speak English, he stayed with Carmelite communities in Dublin and in Kinsale (a seaside town). While in Ireland, he met Éamon de Valera, the President of the Executive Council (later called Taoiseach). Accounts of his stay indicate that was known for drinking considerable amounts of whiskey without ill-effect! Just before he crossed the Atlantic to the U.S., he received word he had been appointed spiritual advisor to 30 Catholic newspapers in the Netherlands. His travels in the United States took him through the East and Midwest. His journals reveal a man deeply impressed by the many things he saw. And saw the work of God in Niagara Falls.

Germany invaded the neutral Netherlands on 10 May 1940. There was no declaration of war, just the day opening with the sound of roaring aircraft. The Dutch put up a lot of resistance to the attack but in the end could not sustain it. Germans had bombed Rotterdam and not wanting to suffer the fate of Warsaw (which had been bombed into submission), the Dutch surrendered (apart from Zealand which fought until 18 May) on 14 May 1940. With Germans now in control, they began implementing German laws. Catholic schools were told to expel Jewish students, barred priests and religious orders as school principals, limited charitable contributions, and censored the Catholic press. Brandsma plead the Germans not to impose these rules on behalf of the Dutch bishops; they declined.

Arthur Seyss-Inquart, the Reich commissioner of the German-occupied Netherlands, was unhappy with the Dutch bishops opposing him. He ordered all newspapers, including Catholic ones, to accept advertisements and press releases from the Nazi regime. The Dutch Bishops opposed this action. Brandsma was tasked with assisting in contacting Catholic newspaper editors to oppose the order. He was told by Archbishop de Jong that doing this was dangerous and he was not obliged to accept it.

“Father Titus knew exactly what I said, and he freely and willingly accepted the duty,” de Jong recalled.”  (de Jong recounting his conversation to Father Titus to Father Boniface Hanley, O.F.M whose book “No Strangers to Violence, No Strangers to Love” relates accounts of Father Titus)

 Father Titus traveled the Netherlands delivering letters from the bishops asking the newspaper editors to not comply with the German edict. He was able to visit 14 editors before the Gestapo arrested him at the Boxmeer monastery on 19 January 1942. Kneeling before his superior to receive the blessing before being taken away, he commented on the fact they were taking a 60-year-old man to jail. During his interrogation, was asked repeatedly why he broke German orders. He made it clear that as a Catholic, he could not have done anything differently. He was asked to write out his reasons for his refusal. And he did. He made clear that the Dutch people would give their lives, if necessary, for their religion. He further said: “The Nazi movement is regarded by the Dutch people not only as an insult to God in relation to his creatures, but a violation of the glorious traditions of the Dutch nation.” He concluded by asking for God’s blessing for both the Netherlands and Germany.

At the Amersfoort transit camp, he and others did forced manual labor clearing trees and other things. Despite meager rations, he shared his food with the hungry and especially with Jewish prisoners. He continued his priestly duties by offering clandestine prayers, hearing confessions, attending to the sick and dying, and even managed Stations of the Cross. The Gestapo was not done with him yet and continued interrogating him hoping the forced labor and meager food might have softened him up. It didn’t. He was sent to Dachau and arrived there on 19 June 1942. He arrived, according to accounts, in a calm and gentle state. He continued being cheerful and the Germans continued their beatings in Dachau.

Other religious and Carmelite brothers were in the camp as well. Father Titus was able to conceal a Holy Eucharist on his body. Though they tried to comfort him, Titus said that he had Jesus with him in the Eucharist. He retained, according to one recollection of him, a cheerful courage. He advised others to be patient and avoid hatred. “We are here in a dark tunnel, but we have to go on. At the end, the eternal light is shining for us,” he told them. He suffered painful sores on his feet but his fellow prisoners carried him back at the end of the day.

Dachau was known for its sadistic medical experiments so most prisoners avoided going to the infirmary. Father Titus though, due his declining health, was forced to go. He would receive a lethal injection on 26 July 1942 from a nurse. This same nurse, who Father Titus gave her his rosary, recalled his look of compassion for her. She did not want the rosary or pray, but Father Titus asked her to say the second part of the Hail Mary which says “pray for us sinners.” He told her if she prayed, she would not be lost. That same nurse would later become Catholic.

In the years since his death, he would become honored as a martyr. In Nijmegen he is considered one of its greatest citizens and in 2005 erected a memorial church in his name. Outside of Dachau, a street now bears his name. Nor were his scholarly pursuits forgotten. In 1968 the Titus Brandsma Institute in Nijmegen was created to further studies on spirituality. His strong words criticizing the Nazi regime and its antisemitism have not been forgotten either. In a time when many might not say much to defend Jews, he was out there making it very clear that what the Nazi’s were promoting was wrong. He was beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1985. After investigation and confirmation of a miracle, he was canonized by Pope Francis in 2022. At his canonization mass, Pope Francis noted:

“Holiness does not consist of a few heroic gestures, but of many small acts of daily love.”

Sources

“Who Was Titus Brandsma?” EWTN News. Last modified September 26, 2025. Accessed July 28, 2026. https://www.ewtnnews.com/world/europe/who-was-titus-brandsma-the-wwii-catholic-martyr-who-will-be-canonized-in-may?redirectedfrom=cna.

O.Carm. “St. Titus Brandsma, Priest and Martyr.” Last modified July 27, 2026. https://ocarm.org/en/item/6929-st-titus-brandsma-priest-and-martyr.

Franciscan Media. “Saint Titus Brandsma | Franciscan Media.” Franciscan Media, May 15, 2026. Accessed July 28, 2026. https://www.franciscanmedia.org/saint-of-the-day/saint-titus-brandsma/.

Verkerk-Wheatley, Susan, and Anne-Marie Bos, trans. “Why Do the Dutch People… – Writings of Titus Brandsma.” Last modified February 1, 2019. Accessed July 28, 2026. https://www.titusbrandsmateksten.nl/why-do-the-dutch-people/.

Videos

Carmelites, “Who Is Saint Titus Brandsma?,” Video, YouTube, July 21, 2025, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Op0k1Fn9owQ.

History

Remembering History: Mussolini Ousted as Italian Leader (25 July 1943)

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On 25 Jul 1943 the Fascist Grand Council formally voted Mussolini from power and was arrested later after meeting with King Victor Emmanuel III. Support for Mussolini had dropped dramatically because of Italy’s participation in World War II and most Italians were happy he was gone. How did Italy get to this point? Let’s take a look.

Benito Mussolini from the second edition of Adolf Dresler’s “Mussolini als Journalist” (1939)
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

 Italy Aligns with Germany

 On 22 May 1939 Italy signed a treaty with Germany that allied both countries militarily and politically. Mussolini nicknamed this treaty, formally known as the Pact of Friendship and Alliance, as the Pact of Steel. The treaty committed Italy to support Germany if attacked or if it declared war. Mussolini believed the pact would provide defense from other Western nations and provide support for his ambitions in the Balkans and elsewhere. Italy was in desperate need of resources due to international sanctions in using mustard gas to conquer Ethiopia. It also lacked the industrial capability at that time for a sustained military conflict. Germany and Italy shared similar interests in believing Fascism was on the march. Italy, like Germany, sided with Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). A treaty of mutual interest in 1936 brought them closer together and paved the way for the Pact of Steel. It was also Mussolini who coined the term Axis regarding the countries that signed the treaty.

Mussolini had hoped both the British and French would give him concessions after the Munich Agreement of 1938, where both powers forced Czechoslovakia to hand over territory to Germany. There was none and Mussolini gave speeches laying out Italy’s desire to take territory in North Africa, France, a part of Switzerland, and Albania. He also threatened British control of the seas and of taking Gibraltar. In both London and Paris, such talk was seen as signaling his territorial ambitions. In 1938, Italy invaded and conquered Albania convincing the other powers of his territorial ambitions. The Pact of Steel in 1939 cemented the partnership between the two countries that had been going on informally. Not all Fascists in Italy agreed with aligning with Germany. Foreign Minister Count Galeazzo Ciano, married to Mussolini’s daughter Edda, became skeptical later as Germany failed to disclose the plan to invade Poland as required by the treaty. While Ciano and other Fascists believed war with Britain and France was inevitable as both powers were blocking their ambitions, they did not see it occurring for a few more years. They dreadfully miscalculated Hitler’s aims and ambitions.

World War II

 Mussolini knew that Italy was not ready for war until 1942 (and the Pact of Steel said neither side was to enter war till 1943). Lacking the raw resources and industrial capability, they needed to import both coal and steel. Countries like Britain banned those raw materials, making it difficult to acquire. Knowing this, Britain and France did try to lure Mussolini away from Germany by offering those resources. And it may have worked as Mussolini was preparing to sign documents to that effect. German pressure on Mussolini though scuttled it. They sent coal by train over the Alps to him to strengthen their friendship. The Italian Army was large on paper but lacked modern transport and weapons leaving them unable to hold their own against a fully trained and battle-ready army. Since supplies were critical to Italy, it failed to prepare its merchant fleet for war and lost many ships that were enemy ports when war was declared. Mussolini was warned by his military advisors to wait until war production would be able arm his military for war. While Italy easily took Albania, the British routed them in North Africa, and the Greeks were able to stop an Italian invasion of their country. In both cases, Germany sent troops to accomplish what the Italians failed to do. They were successful in Yugoslavia since German troops were with them. And they only declared war on France when Germany had defeated them so they could take territory in the south including Corsica. Thanks to Italian occupation in France though, Jews were safe as Italy refused German demands to turn them over.

Rationing of food and other supplies took its toll on the population. Due to a reduced merchant fleet, supplies became more difficult to acquire and had to rely on Germany for a lot of it. Inflation set in as well making it hard for many to buy the supplies. The poor military situation only made it worse and support for Mussolini began to slip. The army was lightly armored, the air force and navy were at odds with each other, poor leadership in the upper levels that were coupled with ill-defined goals. Additionally, Mussolini might decide to do things on a whim making it a chaotic situation. With the Allies taking Sicily, landing in the south, and dropping bombs on Rome, most people had enough of the war. Both King Victor Emmanuel III and members of the Fascist Grand Council wanted Italy out of the war. Mussolini had to go.

Mussolini Sacked

 The Fascist Grand Council met on 24 July 1943-a meeting that would last till the next morning-to discuss what to do. Mussolini, according to various accounts, looked sick, tired, and felt the burden of the military defeats suffered by the Italian military. For some, it appeared he wanted a way out and he got it. The Grand Council voted to remove him from power and transfer some of his powers to the king. There was opposition, but the majority voted for his removal. His son-in-law, Count Galeazzo Ciano, voted for his removal as well. Mussolini seemed stunned and dazed by it. His supporters tried to rally him, but he seemed deflated. He left for his meeting with King Emmanuel and arrived unshaven and groggy. He was informed by the king that he was under arrest and that General Pietro Badoglio would be taking over as Prime Minister. The war was seen as lost, King Emmanuel reportedly said. Mussolini did not resist and seemed to accept it. He was told his family would remain safe. He was whisked away and imprisoned.

The announcement of Mussolini’s downfall was greeted with a general sense of relief. It was hoped this would mean the end of the war. The Fascists did not stage any protests or marches over his removal and imprisonment. He was being held at La Maddalena and later removed to a safer location to prevent his being rescued. The new Italian government negotiated behind the scenes seeking an armistice that would lead to a peace treaty. For a moment Italians breathed a sigh of relief hoping the war would soon be over.

Aftermath

Hitler was furious at his removal and knew the Italians would sign an armistice. Several German battalions were sent into Italy despite objections from the new government. When the armistice was announced on 3 September 1943, Operation Asche was implemented. German troops seized control of northern Italy and marched on Rome. They also seized all its territory in the Balkans and France. Italian forces were told to disarm or be fired upon. Some resistance was done in Rome as the royal family fled with the government. Corsica, Calabria, and Sardinia were successfully defended by Italian troops and repelled German troops until the Americans arrived. The Germans quickly implemented their anti-Jewish policies. Hitler ordered Mussolini found and was rescued from imprisonment at Hotel Campo Imperatore atop Gran Sasso d’Italia mountain range on 12 September 1943. Italians in the north would have to wait until June 1944 to be liberated. Mussolini later would be forced to flee with his mistress but would be captured by partisans, executed, and his body hung upside down for the world to see.

Sources

Mussolini

Foote, John. “Benito Mussolini.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified July 25, 2026. Accessed July 27, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benito-Mussolini.

“Benito Mussolini Falls From Power.” History. Last modified May 27, 2026. Accessed July 27, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/july-25/mussolini-falls-from-power.

Taylor, Blaine. “Mussolini’s Fall From Powers.” Warfare History Network. Last modified June 2019. Accessed July 27, 2026. https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/mussolinis-fall-from-power/.

Italy Under Mussolini

Demetri, Justin. “Italy World War 2.” Life in Italy. Last modified June 6, 2020. Accessed July 27, 2026. https://lifeinitaly.com/italians-in-world-war-ii-2/.

Helga. “Italy Between 1922-1945 – the Rule of Mussolini.” Life in Italy. Last modified March 19, 2021. Accessed July 27, 2026. https://lifeinitaly.com/italy-between-1922-1945-the-rule-of-mussolini/.

Pact of Steel

“The Pact of Steel Is Signed; the Axis Is Formed.” HISTORY. Last modified January 31, 2025. Accessed July 27, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/May-22/the-pact-of-steel-is-signed-the-axis-is-formed.

“Axis Alliance in World War II | Holocaust Encyclopedia.” Holocaust Encyclopedia. Accessed July 27, 2026. https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/axis-powers-in-world-war-ii.

“The Pact of Steel – the Pact of Friendship and Alliance Between Germany and Italy, May 22, 1939.” Historical Resources About the Second World War. Last modified September 10, 2008. Accessed July 27, 2026.https://historicalresources.wordpress.com/2008/09/10/the-pact-of-steel-the-pact-of-friendship-and-alliance-between-germany-and-italy-may-22-1939/.

Italy in World War II

Swick, Gerald, and Jim Heddlesten. “Italy in World War II.” HistoryNet. Last modified March 30, 2016. Accessed July 27, 2026. https://historynet.com/italy-in-world-war-ii/.

“Italian Campaign.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified July 2, 2026. Accessed July 27, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Italian-Campaign.

Suggested Reading
[As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]

Bosworth, R. J. B. (2006). Mussolini’s Italy: Life Under the Dictatorship, 1915-1945. Penguin Press HC.

Haynes, D. (2023). A brief history of Italy: Tracing the Renaissance, Unification, and the Lively Evolution of Art and Culture.

Hearder, H., & Morris, J. (2001). Italy: A Short History. Cambridge University Press.

Hibbert, C. (2008). Mussolini: The Rise and Fall of Il Duce. St. Martin’s Griffin.

Kertzer, D. I. (2015). The Pope and Mussolini: The Secret History of Pius XI and the Rise of Fascism in Europe. Random House Trade Paperbacks.

Moseley, R. (1999). Mussolini’s shadow: The Double Life of Count Galeazzo Ciano. Yale University Press.

Revision History

-2025: corrections for grammar and punctuation. New sources added.

-2026: Slight rewrite of intro. Sources updated.

History

Remembering History: The Great Fire of Rome (18 Jul 64 AD)

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The Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD was the most destructive fire for the ancient city of Rome.

The Fire of Rome, 18 July 64 AD by Hubert Robert (1733–1808)
1785
Public Domain (US) via Wikimedia Commons

Rome was a metropolis in 64 AD where approximately one million people lived. Originally starting near the Tiber River, the city had grown and expanded to encompass much of what is called Rome today. Because much of the city was built near the river, it was prone to flooding. This happened frequently resulting in major floods where many parts of Rome were underwater.

Aside from that occasional blight, fires were not uncommon either. Since most people lived in poorly constructed wooden apartments, fires were common. Often small areas or neighborhoods might go up but there was no equivalent of a modern fire department. Instead, a small group established by the Emperor Augustus carried buckets to help put out fires. However, once a fire got too large there was nothing that could be done.

Since Rome had very narrow streets and houses close together, fires could become serious quickly. This also meant crowded streets and Romans generally walked on the raised sidewalks as the streets themselves were quite filthy from horse and human waste. Since few had a sewer opening in their home, they had to hand carry the waste containers to the nearest sewer opening. Most people just dumped it into the street, adding an additional hazard to walking as the contents of the pot or even the pot itself might hit people passing below. Romans cleverly built raised stones to allow crossing streets to avoid stepping onto the street itself. Those who traveled in raised litters had perfumed liners to mitigate the stench, which was very strong during the warm summers.

On the evening of 18 Jul 64, a fire broke out in the slums south of Palatine Hill. It was likely started by a tipped over oil lantern. The burning olive oil would start a small fire that if left unintended probably grew fast due the wood providing fuels. With winds and the closeness of homes, the fire grew larger before realizing how serious it was. The fire began spreading quickly consuming neighborhoods and whole districts. Rome was divided into 14 districts and soon every one of them would be impacted by the fires. Only three were spared the direct results of the fire (mostly those on the hills) but they were impacted as people were fleeing the fires in massive numbers. Hundreds died in the fires and thousands were left homeless. And the fire raged for nine days before it went out leaving the city in ruins.

Depiction of the Great Fire of Rome (64 AD)
Image: Omar Sahel via publicdomainpictures.net

The emperor Nero was away at the time the fire started and headed back to Rome. Contrary to both legends and myths, there is nothing to indicate he started the fire. Nor was he merrily playing his lyre while composing an ode to the fire. The famous idiom “Fiddling while Rome burns” was not accurate for Nero as the fiddle didn’t exist. Nero had started out his reign liked but by this time things had changed. He had murdered his mother, was known for his vanity, and spent a lot of time away from Rome doing things emperors didn’t do (acting, singing, participating in sports). Many had come to dislike him in the military, nobility and even the commoners.

Nero took steps to help those who lost their homes allowing the homeless to camp out in areas that normally were not allowed. And then he undertook the redesigning of Rome by widening streets to allow more people and carts to get through and put rules in place to prohibit the use of materials that caused fires. His megalomania would surface though when he wanted to rename Rome (Neropolis) and build a new palace. He had a bigger problem though as people were angry and resentful about what happened. And emperors, being the ones in charge, could be blamed when things went awful. So, to distract them, he craftily spread the tale that Christians were responsible for setting the fires. And Christians were a small minority whose faith in an unseen god was disturbing to many. Also spread was the tale that Christians, to bring about the end of the world so that their god might return, burned the city to make it possible.

And it worked. Nero worked up the populace to believe that this minority sect was responsible for Rome’s recent destruction. There was no proof this was the case, but the anger against them worked. Christians were arrested and put to death in horrific ways, often in public spectacles where hungry lions or other animals were let loose to have at them. And Nero basked in the glory of being the one who was rebuilding Rome and dealing with those who had caused the fires.

Aftermath

Rebuilding saw Roman houses spaced out and built with brick. However, the immense cost of rebuilding drained the Roman treasury. This would lead to increased taxation, and heavy tributes were placed on the provinces. Thinking it would help with costs, Nero devalued the currency, leading to inflation. The increased taxes and the devaluing of the currency led to an unsuccessful uprising in 65 AD with all the conspirators either killed or forced into suicide. In March 68, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis revolted against Nero’s tax policies. Gaius Julius Vindex called for support from Servius Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Vindex’s revolt was put down and its commander, Lucius Verginius Rufus, was hailed by legions as the next emperor (he did not accept it). All of this led to instability for Nero as Galba started getting support. A key defection by the commander of the Praetorian Guard sealed his fate. Nero thought about going to Galba and asking for forgiveness but abandoned that idea.

The Praetorian Guard had abandoned the palace by this point and so he went out to the country to collect his thoughts. The senate declared him a public enemy and Nero prepared to die and had a grave dug for him. He was unable to take his own life and asked his secretary Epaphroditus to do it for him. He died on 9 June 68 AD which was greeted by cheering in Rome. It would be the end of the Judeo-Claudian line (Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero) and would usher in the Year of the Four Emperors. There would be Nero impostors as well claiming power. Vespasian was the last of the Four Emperors and would rule for 10 years and die in 79 AD. His rule restored political stability and established the Flavian dynasty that lasted for 27 years.

Sources

“Nero.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified June 5, 2026. Accessed July 22, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nero-Roman-emperor#ref1265437.

“Nero.” Biography, September 24, 2020. https://www.biography.com/political-figures/nero.

“Nero’s Rome Burns | July 19, 64 |.” HISTORY. Last modified July 16, 2025. Accessed July 22, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/July-19/neros-rome-burns.

“The Great Fire of Rome.” History Today. Last modified July 16, 2021. Accessed July 22, 2026. https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/great-fire-rome.

Reich, Matthew. “The Great Fire of Rome | Origins.” Origins. Last modified July 1, 2024. Accessed July 22, 2026. https://origins.osu.edu/read/great-fire-rome.

The Vintage News. “Today in History: July 18th, 64 AD.” Thevintagenews. Last modified July 16, 2025. Accessed July 22, 2026. https://www.thevintagenews.com/2025/07/16/july-18-64/.

Zusmann, Kate. “Emperor Nero.” Rome.Us. Last modified June 4, 2025. Accessed July 22, 2026. https://rome.us/roman-emperors/nero.html.

Videos

Origins OSU. “The Great Fire of Rome.” Video. YouTube, April 7, 2025. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iyfihqrMYCw.

Suggested Reading

[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]

History

Remembering History: Romanov Dynasty Ends with their Execution (16 July 1918)

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Nicholas II of Russia with the family (left to right): Olga, Maria, Nicholas II, Alexandra Fyodorovna, Anastasia, Alexei, and Tatiana. Livadiya, Crimea, 1913. Portrait by the Levitsky Studio, Livadiya. Today the original photograph is held at the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

On 16 July 1918 the Russian Imperial family (Czar Nicholas II, his wife Alexandra, their son Alexi and their four daughters Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia) along with members of their entourage were shot and bayoneted to death in Yekaterinburg, Russia. The order to kill them came from the Ural Regional Soviet. Their bodies would be stripped, mutilated to prevent identification, and buried. This ended the 300-year-old Romanov dynasty and left mysteries to be answered about who was really buried and whether at least one Romanov had managed to escape.

Russia towards the end of the 19th century was inching towards modernity. It was primarily an agrarian country and was seen as backward to Europe that had embraced the industrial age. Britain, France, and Germany had been transformed, becoming very powerful in the process. The United States as well was not far behind either. Russia’s industrial age was beginning but they still had to rely on foreign sources to supply their military with needed arms and ships. As many in the middle class (and upper class as well) got access to more education (by attending schools in other countries or in Russia), they began to seek change to move Russia towards a constitutional system instead of an absolute monarchy that ruled Russia. And since more people were moving to the cities to work in factories, trying to solve the social problems that were emerging as well.

Czar Alexander II had begun a movement towards liberal reforms. He freed the serfs in 1861, reformed the judicial systems, having local judges elected, eliminated corporal punishment and promoted more self-government. He also eliminated some privileges for the nobility, promoted universal education, and promoted university education. However, after an attempted assassination in 1866, he pulled back and appointed more conservative ministers. In foreign policy he was mostly a pacifist but supported the United States and not the Confederacy during the American Civil War (he even sent warships to New York and San Francisco to discourage any taking of those cities). He sold Alaska to the U.S. since it was remote and didn’t want it to become a British colony. After the Franco-Prussian War of 1871 (which saw Louis Napoleon fall), he joined with Germany and Austria to help bring stability to Europe. However, he did fight against the Ottoman Empire (which freed Bulgaria, Montenegro, Romania and Serbia) and expanded Russia eastward. He faced a major challenge in Poland where in 1863 there was an uprising. It was put down but stripped Poland of its constitution and incorporated it directly into Russia.

He would be assassinated on 13 March 1881 ending liberal reform in Russia. His son, Alexander III, would take over and institute a more authoritarian government from that time on. He set out to undo his father’s liberal policies. The local governments were altered and peasant communes came under the control of landowners appointed by him, which took away power from both the peasants and nobility. He also instituted “Russification” where in all its territories only Russia would be taught and Eastern Orthodox the only religion. This resulted in the closure of German, Polish, and Swedish cultural and religious institutions. Antisemitism also was promoted by Alexander III and the May Laws of 1882 reflected this. These laws strictly limited where Jews might live, restricted occupations, forbade them from buying property, and conducting business on Sundays. The practical effect on this was to encourage open antisemitism resulting in pogroms all over western Russia. Jews then had no choice by migrating to Western Europe or the United States.

He became a target for assassination as well, but the plot was discovered by the Okhrana. Five of the conspirators were captured and hung in May 1887. One of those executed was Aleksandr Ulyanov, the older brother of Vladimir Ulyanov who later became known as Lenin. The death of his older brother was one of the chief reasons he sought to bring down the Romanov dynasty later.

Alexander’s son Nicholas (full name Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov) on 6 May 1868. He was the eldest son, so he was destined to become emperor one day. Yet Alexander was not sure he was ready for that role and thus didn’t bring him into the government. Nicholas agreed and was free to travel and see the world as a young man. Alexander III thought he had enough time to see his son ready to assume the role of emperor. Unfortunately, that would not be the case. In 1894 his health would deteriorate and would die on 1 November 1894. He had been counselled previously to bring Nicholas into the government, perhaps even heading up an agency, but Alexander thought his son was soft and unready. And when he died, Nicholas officially became Nicholas II the new emperor of Russia. He would quickly marry Alexandra (already his fiancée) and soon have children. But he was totally unprepared for the role he had ascended to.

Nicholas II kept most of the policies of his father in place. He also put the gold standard back in place, funded the All-Russia exhibition of 1896 and in 1902 saw the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway. Believing himself to put in power by the will of God, he saw himself in a manner few truly understood. He assumed people knew and accepted this. He believed that trying to impose constitutional principles limiting his power was wrong. And this led to growing resentment and conflicts in a Russia that was changing and wanted more political freedom. His ties to the Russian Orthodox Church caused concern and he put pressure on them to accede to his will at times (notably the canonization of Seraphim of Sarov). It caused fissures between him and the church, and with the people as well. Worst was yet to come.

The Russia-Japanese War of 1904-1905 would show the weakness of Russia. Russia had expanded in the Far East and sought control of both Manchuria and Korea. Nicholas strongly opposed Japanese control there and made it clear it would mean war if Japan tried to take Korea. The Japanese attacked Port Arthur in February 1904 where the Russian Pacific Fleet was located. They attacked without a formal declaration of war. Due to long supply lines, it proved difficult to supply Port Arthur which held out for nine months before surrendering. Meanwhile Russia dispatched a fleet from the Baltic to take on the Japanese Navy. However, after the nine-month voyage, they were defeated at the Battle of Tsushima in 1905. Calls for seeking peace were being made both inside Russia and from outside.

Many could see that the war was lost, and that Tsar Nicholas had to sue for peace or face a terrible defeat. Nicholas believed they could win but after the defeat of his navy, he accepted American mediation. This ultimately resulted in the Treaty of Portsmouth which ended the war. It had lasting repercussions for him. Nicholas firmly believed Russia could win the war against the Japanese, who he thought were inferior. Nor did his close advisors tell him the true strength of the Japanese. Despite disaster after disaster in the war, he seemed unfazed and believed in Russian superiority. Forced finally to admit defeat with the treaty, he ordered his treaty negotiator Count Witte to not agree to any indemnity payments or territory loss. He also wanted it known that he would resume war if the Japanese conditions were unacceptable. Ultimately Witte would cede southern Sakhalin to Japan, disobeying his emperor, to have the agreement signed.

The war resulted in the Russian Revolution of 1905 which ended only when Nicholas was forced by the dire circumstances of his country to create a representative assembly-Duma-and promise of constitutional reforms.  However, he would retract these concessions, repeatedly dissolve the Duma, and this resulted in more unrest determined to unseat him. Various revolutionary groups like the Bolsheviks found easy recruits as Nicholas seemed bound and determined to keep in charge. In 1914, he would lead his country until another disastrous war-World War I. He decided to support Serbia when Austria threatened to invade in retaliation for a Serbian nationalist assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. He was also allied at that point with both Britain and France. His country though was scarcely prepared for war. Germany proved to have better troops, material, and supplies. As the defeats mounted, soldiers became weary, and wartime rationing had created a terrible morale situation, the dam was ready to burst.

In March 1917 revolution broke out in Petrograd (renamed from St. Petersburg) and Nicholas II was forced to abdicate the throne. A provisional government took over but stayed in the war. In November the Bolsheviks seized power, negotiated a peace deal with Germany and Austria, and became the first Communist state in history. Civil war broke out in June 1918 and at one point the anti-Bolshevik forces were near Yekaterinburg. The local authorities were told to prevent them from being rescued and why they decided to execute them. According to accounts, the family was ordered to get dressed to go down to a cellar in the house. There they sat in a way to suggest a photograph was to be taken to show they were still there. Then quite suddenly men armed with guns burst in and killed everyone in the room. After that they were stripped, mutilated, and buried.

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Stranger than Fiction: The Curious Cases of Romanov Survivors

Over the years there have been people to claim they were Anastasia, Alexei and other members of the presumed dead Romanov family. The most well-known of them was Anna Anderson who claimed to be Anastasia Romanov. In 1920, she was institutionalized in a Berlin hospital after a suicide attempt. She refused to reveal her identity and went by the name Fräulein Unbekannt (German for Miss Unknown). She then changed it to Tschaikovsky and after that Anderson. In 1922 she claimed to be a Russian grand duchess and got some public notice. Now while the immediate family had been killed by the Communists, there were a lot of Romanovs still alive, and some had known Anastasia as a young girl like her tutor Pierre Gilliard. Gilliard and others considered her an imposter, but some were convinced she might be Anastasia. In 1927 Tsarina’s brother, Ernest Louis (Grand Duke of Hesse), conducted a private investigation and learned she was Franziska Schanzkowska. She had been a Polish factory worker with a history of mental illness. German courts, after lengthy lawsuits brought over her claim, determined she could not prove she was Anastasia. This ended any legal claim, but it lingered in public for a long time.

If you ever watched the movie Miracle on 34th Street (1947) there is a reference to another Romanov imposter. It comes in the scene where they are discussing whether Kris is fit or not for the job. The doctor who knows Kris says he is of no harm despite his insistence he is Kris Kringle. He compares him to a well-known restaurant owner-a name he cannot remember-who believes he is a member of the Russian royal family-operates a restaurant and is quite normal. He was referring to Michael Romanoff, who claimed to be a nephew of the Tsar. He was Harry F. Gerguson and born in Lithuania. He claimed to be various people during his life but his claim to be Tsar’s nephew certainly got him attention. It was disproved but he opened Romanoff’s, a restaurant in Hollywood that was popular and ran from 1941-1962. He died from a heart attack in 1971.

When remains were found in a forest outside Yekaterinburg, they were subjected to DNA testing to determine who they were. They positively identified the remains as belonging to Tsar Nicholas II and his wife Alexandra, three of their daughters, the ladies’ maids to the Tsarina, the family doctor, cook, and footman. Missing were the son Alexei (age 13) and Anastasia. The two missing bodies would continue to fuel speculation of their survival until 2007.  It was announced in August 2007 two burned and partial skeletons were found at a bonfire site near Yekaterinburg. The bones were from a boy aged 10-13 and a female between 18-23 years old. Also found were metal strips from a wooden box, nails, bullets, and shards from a container that held sulfuric acid.

Preliminary testing was done in 2008 and showed that the remains were of Alexei and one of his sisters. At the end of April 2008, Russian forensic scientists confirmed that DNA testing confirmed that the remains belonged to Alexei and one of his sisters. This ended any doubt as to whether any Romanovs survived. Anna Anderson, who died 1984 and was cremated, was determined not to be related to the Romanovs through Mitochondrial DNA using hair strands and hospital samples. The Russian Orthodox Church was very cautious about accepting the DNA results. So in 2015 the remains of Tsar Nicholas and Tsarina Alexandra were exhumed and once again tested. It confirmed they were in fact the bones of the couple. Most Russians today believe the murders were wrong and not justified at all. Not surprisingly the Communists believe otherwise.

Sources

“Romanov Family Executed, Ending a 300-year Imperial Dynasty | July 16, 1918 |.” HISTORY. Last modified July 10, 2025. Accessed July 21, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/July-16/romanov-family-executed.

Blakemore, Erin. “Why Czar Nicholas II and the Romanovs Were Murdered | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified May 28, 2025. Accessed July 21, 2026. https://www.history.com/articles/romanov-family-murder-execution-reasons.

Katz, Brigit. “DNA Analysis Confirms Authenticity of Romanovs’ Remains.” Smithsonian Magazine, July 17, 2018. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/dna-analysis-confirms-authenticity-remains-attributed-romanovs-180969674/.

Lucchesi, Emilie Le Beau. “How Scientists Identified the Remains of the Romanovs: DNA Analysis Was the Key to Unraveling the Mystery of What Happened to Russia’s Fallen Royal Family.” Discover. Last modified April 15, 2022. Accessed July 21, 2026. https://www.discovermagazine.com/how-scientists-identified-the-remains-of-the-romanovs-43547.

Sommerlad, Joe. “Tsar Nicholas II’s Murder 100 Years on: The Terrible Fate of Russia’s Imperial Family | the Independent.” The Independent, July 17, 2018. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/tsar-nicholas-execution-romanovs-russian-revolution-centenary-bolsheviks-murder-assassination-a8450546.html.

Suggested Reading

[As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]

“The Last Days of Tsar Nicholas?: Pavel Mikhailovich Bykov?: Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming?: Internet Archive.” Internet Archive. Last modified July 18, 2018. https://archive.org/details/LastDaysTsar.

“The Romanov Regicide – Testimony of Iakov Iurovsky?: Iurovsky, Iakov M. (1878–1938)?: Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming?: Internet Archive.” Internet Archive. Last modified 2026. https://archive.org/details/26-iurovsky-romanovregicide/page/n13/mode/2up.

Massie, Robert K. The Romanovs: The Final Chapter. Random House Trade Paperbacks, 1996.

Radzinsky, Edvard. The Last Tsar: The Life and Death of Nicholas II. Anchor, 1993.

 

History

Remembering History: Storming Bastille Starts French Revolution (14 July 1789)

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The storming of the Bastille, a formidable stone prison on 14 July 1789, is considered the start of the French Revolution.

The Storming of the Bastille by Jean-Pierre Houël (1735–1813)
National Library of France
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

The Bastille, originally built to protect the eastern entrance to Paris, had become a symbol of tyranny for the political prisoners it often housed there. At this time in 1789, there were only seven prisoners and none of them were political prisoners. Four had been charged with forgery while two were considered mad or lunatics. The building itself was going to be demolished to create a public square.

France at this time was facing both economic and social problems inherited from previous monarchs. King Louis XVI, despite inheriting considerable debt from his predecessor, continued to spend lavishly making the debt grow even larger. Crop failures, particularly one in 1788, created unrest as the cost of bread soared. Additionally, many were unemployed adding fuel to the unrest. Some blamed it on the lowering of customs duties with England which had created more jobs there but lost them in France. With unrest brewing and riots breaking, King Louis XVI summoned the Estates-General, a national assembly of clergy, nobility, and the commoners to resolve the situation.

In theory, all three were equal but two parts could outvote the third leaving many deputies upset demanding a larger voice. This led to the creation of the National Assembly with the famous Tennis Court Oath of 20 June 1789 that it would not separate until a constitution was created. The National Assembly drew many nobles and clergy to it and King XVI gave his consent to it. However, the assembly of army regiments in Paris led to fears he was going to break it by force. His dismissal of Jacques Necker, a non-noble minister, on 11 July led to massive protests resulting in custom posts being destroyed. Since these posts imposed taxes on goods, they were despised.

A mob seized muskets on 14 July from a military hospital and marched on the Bastille. Seeing them approach, the governor invited the leaders in to discuss surrender terms. The crowd though was restless and began to believe the delegates had been arrested. Climbing the outer wall a group managed to bring down the drawbridge in the courtyard. The governor, breaking a pledge not to fire, ordered his guards to open fire killing 100 outright and wounding others. The arrival of French Guards though changed the situation. They sided with the mob, fired cannons at the Bastille, and forced the governor to surrender. Some of the royalist troops inside the Bastille would be killed and the governor was beheaded by the mob.

Aftermath
The French Revolution began in earnest from this point on. What began to reform France into a constitutional monarchy like Britain or a republic modeled on the United States, became instead a revolutionary government that completely changed France (the ancien regime). And the new order went viciously against royalists and supporters of the old order. King Louis XIV and his wife Marie Antoinette were beheaded. Ironically, he was the last prisoner of the Bastille before it was demolished. Revolutionary France soon found itself embroiled in its own civil war as various factions within it fought for control begetting more violence and bloody executions using the guillotine. That device would become the symbol of the revolution. Many churches too had become part of this revolution fully supporting its aims and failure to attend brought consequences causing many to flee.

It would come to an end as people, tired of the turmoil, wanted order which allowed a man named Napoleon Bonaparte, largely unknown to most French, to take over. Soon everyone would know about him and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars showed the revolutionary zeal now had changed into creating a new French empire in Europe and elsewhere.

Sources

Videos

Suggested Reading
[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]

Clarke, S. (2019). The French Revolution and What Went Wrong. Arrow.

Davidson, I. (2018). The French Revolution. Pegasus Books.

Dickens, C. (1998). A Tale of Two Cities. Courier Corporation.

Doyle, W. (2018). The Oxford History of the French Revolution. Oxford University Press.

De Tocqueville, A. (2020). The State of Society in France Before the Revolution of 1789: And the Causes Which Led to That Event (H. Reeve, Trans.). Independently Published.

Palmer, R. R. (2017). Twelve Who ruled: The Year of Terror in the French Revolution. Princeton University Press.