Category Archives: History

History, Titanic

Titanic Chronology-Titanic Sea Trials (2 April 1912)

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Titanic leaving Belfast with two guiding tugs, 2 April 1912
Robert John Welch (1859-1936), official photographer for Harland & Wolff
Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

 

Titanic’s sea trials, originally scheduled for 1 April at 10 am but cancelled due to adverse weather, took place at 0600 on 2 April 1912. While it reduced staying in Southhampton by one day, it provided an opportunity for the officers and crew to see how the new ship operated. 78 members of “black gang”–stokers, greasers and firemen– were aboard along with 41 other members of the crew. Both Harold Bride and Jack Phillips were aboard as well to make sure the radio equipment was working properly. Unfortunately, due to illness neither Bruce Ismay nor Lord Pirrie could attend. Among the representatives in attendance were:

 

  • Thomas Andrews and Edward Wilding of Harland and Wolff
  • Harold A. Sanderson of IMM
  • Francis Carruthers of the Board of Trade to certify the ship was working correctly and fit to carry passengers.

Crowds gathered at the banks of Belfast Lough to watch Titanic pass by. After the mooring lines were dropped, tugs assisted the ship down Belfast Lough until she reached the point where it was time to detach the tugs and move on her own power. Signals were sent from the bridge to the engine room, and the two massive engines came on to move the massive propellers. From that moment on, Titanic was moving under its own power for the very first time. Gradually the speed was worked up to 20 knots (23 mph) and the sea trials began in earnest.

Over 12 hours the ship was driven at different speeds and her turning ability was tested. Testing on how fast Titanic could stop quickly (called a “crash stop”) was done as well. This was achieved by reversing full ahead to full astern. Titanic came to a stop in 850 yards taking approximately 3 minutes and 15 seconds. Titanic covered a distance of about 80 nautical miles (92 land miles) with an average speed of 18 knots (21 mph). Titanic reached its maximum speed of slightly under 21 knots (24 mph).

Titanic went into the Irish Sea for two hours covering 40 miles then turned back home. Doing a few more maneuvers as she returned to Belfast at 7:00 p.m. The sea trials were not quite over though as Carruthers requested that both the port and starboard anchors be lowered. With that completed, he signed the certificate “Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew” certifying the ship seaworthy for one year. It was also signed by Thomas Andrews and Harold Sanderson.

Titanic returned to Belfast at around 1900 (7 pm). Carruthers as surveyor for the Board of Trade signed the document (“Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew”) certifying for 12 months the ship was seaworthy. Those not staying aboard Titanic for its 8:00 p.m. departure for Southampton were ferried to shore. Titanic would depart on time at 8:00 p.m.

It would take 28 hours to travel the 600 miles reach her destination on 4 April 1912 for the midnight tide. Time was of the essence due to one less day in Southampton to take on provisions and supplies for its departure on 10 April 1912. With five tugs assisting her, she  docked at Berth 44 to prepare for her maiden voyage.

Sources

Books

Cameron, Stephen. Titanic: Belfast’s Own. Colourpoint, 2011.

Lord, Walter

–A NIGHT TO REMEMBER, Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York, New York, 1955. Multiple revisions and reprints, notably Illustrated editions (1976,1977,1978 etc.)

–THE NIGHT LIVES ON, Willian Morrow and Company, New York, New York, 1986 (First Edition)

Internet Articles

Dane, Kane. “Titanic’S Sea Trials.” Titanic-Titanic.Com. Last modified July 3, 2019. Accessed April 1, 2026. https://www.titanic-titanic.com/titanics-sea-trials/.

Payne, Brad. “Titanic’s Voyage From Belfast to Southampton April 2, 1912: Sea Trials and Delivery to Southampton.” Encyclopedia Titanica. Last modified November 1, 2021. Accessed April 1, 2026. https://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/titanic-voyage-belfast-southampton-april-2nd.html.

Titanic News Channel is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com.

History, Titanic

Titanic Chronology: Construction Begins on Titanic (31 Mar 1909)

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RMS Titanic ready for launch(1911)
Public Domain (U.S. Library of Congress, digital id#cph.3a27541)

 

The immense size required to build the Olympic class vessels for the White Star Line by Harland & Wolff required demolishing three existing slipways on Queen’s Island in Belfast Harbor. Two new ones–the largest built at the time–would be used to construct both RMS Olympic and Titanic. Olympic had its keel laid on 16 December 1908 followed by Titanic on 31 March 1909. Since both ships were being built parallel to the other, Queen’s Island became known as “Titanic Quarter.” An enormous gantry was built to hold the crease needed during construction.

Each ship under an expedited schedule was expected to be completed in 26 months. Both ships had double bottoms of 5 feet 3 inches deep supporting 300 frames (24 and 36 inches apart and were 66 feet high) that went up to bridge deck (B deck). Steel plates provided the outer skin of both ships. Both ships were floating box girders with the keel as the backbone of the ship.

Sources

Behe, George TITANIC: SAFETY, SPEED AND SACRIFICE, Transportation Trails, Polo, IL 1997

Eaton John P. & Haas Charles, TITANIC TRIUMPH AND TRAGEDY, SECOND EDITION, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, New York, 1995 First American Edition

Lord, Walter, A NIGHT TO REMEMBER, Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York, New York, 1955. Multiple revisions and reprints, notably Illustrated editions (1976,1977,1978 etc.)

Lord, Walter, THE NIGHT LIVES ON, Willian Morrow and Company, New York, New York, 1986 (First Edition

Lynch, Don & Marshall Ken, TITANIC AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY, Madison Press Books, Toronto, Ontario Canada, 1992

Titanic News Channel is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com.

 

 

History

Beware The Ides of March! The Assassination of Julius Caesar (15 March 44 BC)

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The Death of Julius Caesar,Vincenzo Camuccini (1771–1844).
Public Domain

The assassination of Julius Caesar on 15 March 44 BC shocked Rome. The conspirators believed the Roman Republic would be restored. Instead, civil war followed, and the Roman Empire became firmly established.

In ancient Rome the Ides of March were part of a series of days of three grouped by the ancient Romans. The ides occurred on the fifteenth of March, May, July, and October and in other months started on the thirteenth day. Since the early Romans used a lunar calendar, sometimes the ides might be a time of foreboding and omens. However, since March was the beginning of the new year on the old Roman calendar, there were festivals to welcome the new year. On this Ide, Jupiter (Greek Zeus) and other deities were being honored. However, this time of festivity in March would be forever changed by the assassination of Julius Caesar.

Caesar had created enemies over his actions. He defied the senate in 49 BC by crossing the Rubicon without disbanding his army sparking a civil war he decisively won. He assumed the office of dictatorship at first just annually then for life. While he did many noteworthy things such as providing land for veterans and overseeing the creation of a new calendar (the Julian), his centralization of power undermined republican institutions. Proclaiming himself perpetual dictator and accepting king like honors upset many in the senate. The leaders of the plot to kill him were Marcus Juinius Brutus and Gaius Cassius, but sixty senators in total were in support.

According to Plutarch, Caesar was warned of his death by a soothsayer. Shakespeare in his famous play Julius Caesarused this by having his soothsayer utter: “beware the ides of March.” Caesar went to attend a meeting of senators at the Curia of Pompey within the Theatre of Pompey in Rome. After he entered, he was ambushed. Marc Antony, who was going to enter behind him, was delayed by another conspirator and thus was not there to prevent the assassination. One of the first attackers only wounder Caesar, who took the knife and stabbed him. However, the other attackers thrust their daggers into him stabbing 23 times though not all wounding him. He would end dying under the Pompey statue. His last words are disputed, but Suetonious reports he said to Brutus “You to, child?” Shakespeare rewrote that into the famous “Et tu, Brute.”

Rome was stunned by the assassination. The conspirators thought they would he hailed as heroes for killing the tyrant Caesar. Instead, they were treated coldly, and few places would let them in. Caesar’s body would be taken home by his slaves where it was prepared for funeral. At the funeral, Marc Antony gave a eulogy that stirred the people against Brutus and the other conspirators. Caesar’s death created a power vacuum in Rome and various factions now jostled for power. Brutus and Cassius fled, each to different places to recruit supporters for the coming confrontation. Gaius Octavius, Caesar’s 18-year-old grand-nephew and designated heir under the will, came into conflict with Marc Antony over who was to rule.

Aftermath

Civil war between Octavius and Antony gave both Brutus and Cassius the opportunity to attack Rome. However, both Octavius and Antony made peace and turned their full armies against them. At the Battle of Phillippi on 3 October 42 BC, Brutus defeated Octavius forces, but Antony defeated Cassius. Cassius, assuming Brutus was dead, killed himself. The second battle on 23 October resulted in Brutus’ defeat and him fleeing to the hills where he killed himself. Antony treated his body with respect wrapping in expensive purple mantle. However, Octavius had his head cut off to be taken and displayed in Rome. It would never arrive as the box it was in fell into the Mediterranean Sea during a storm on the way to Rome. His body was cremated and remains sent to his mother. None of the other conspirators would survive. Senators who had participated, knew of the plot, and others who had assisted, were tracked down and executed. While some were able to flee to distant lands, they were eventually tracked down and killed, sometimes by bounty hunters.

Instead of restoring the republic, the assassination achieved the opposite. Rome became an empire with power centralized into one person and the offices that answered to him. The Senate would continue to exist to pass laws but could not overrule him. The Praetorian Guard was created to protect an emperor from being assassinated. The Roman Empire expanded and the entire Mediterranean came under Roman rule. Rome became not just a city, but the name for the world that was ruled by it.

Sources

“The Assassination of Julius Caesar (44 BC): Causes, Conspirators, and Consequences – History Rome.” SolarAndalucia, January 18, 2026. https://history-rome.com/the-assassination-of-julius-caesar-44-bc-causes-conspirators-and-consequences/.

Klein, Christopher. “Julius Caesar’s Assassination: Fall of the Roman Republic | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified March 4, 2026. https://www.history.com/articles/julius-caesar-assassination-fall-roman-republic.

Toynbee, Arnold Joseph. “Julius Caesar.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified March 6, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Julius-Caesar-Roman-ruler.

Videos

Historia Civilis. “The Assassination of Julius Caesar (the Ides of March, 44 B.C.E.).” Video. YouTube, October 19, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9XBxMk_plhA.

History Unleashed. “How The Senators Who Stabbed Julius Caesar Died | Rome’s Revenge.” Video. YouTube, January 10, 2026. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=up6zZ3tgNio.

Arik Elman. “Charlton Heston Mark Antony Speech ‘Julius Caesar’ (1970).” Video. YouTube, February 25, 2013. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0bi1PvXCbr8.

History

Remembering History: Lindbergh Baby Kidnapping Shocks America (1 Mar 1932)

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The kidnapping of the Lindbergh baby would shock the nation and bring heartbreak to the Lindbergh family.

Lindbergh Child Poster 1932
Public Domain (via Wikimedia Commons)

Famed aviator Charles Lindbergh and his wife Anne lived in a house in Hopewell, New Jersey. Around 9:00 pm on 1 March 1932, the kidnapper or kidnappers climbed a ladder into the second-story nursery, abducted the child, and left a ransom note of $50,000. Betty Gow, the child’s nurse, reported him missing to the parents. The Hopewell police were notified and later the New Jersey State Police who took over the investigation. The search found the ransom note, muddy footprints in the nursery, and a ladder some distance from the home. Footprints from the ladder led into the woods at the edge of the property. No blood or fingerprints were found in the nursery.

Investigators interviewed everyone who worked in the house and for Lindbergh. Lindbergh made appeals for the kidnappers to contact him. Attempts to use underworld figures to facilitate contact or turn up leads failed. A second ransom note was received by Lindbergh on 6 March 1932 demanding a ransom of $70,000 resulting in high level conference with state leaders, police, prosecutors, and federal representatives. Lindbergh’s attorney, Colonel Henry Breckenridge, employed private investigators. A third ransom note was received by Breckenridge on 8 March 1932 stating that an intermediary selected by Lindbergh was not acceptable. Retired school principal John Condon published in the “Bronx Home News” that we act as go-between and would pay an additional $1,000 ransom.

The kidnappers responded to Condon accepting his offer. Condon used newspaper columns under the name of Jafsie to send messages. The kidnappers responded with leaving secret written messages at locations in New York City. Additionally, the kidnappers sent the child’s sleeping suit as proof of identity. On 2 April 1932, a meet was set up to deliver the ransom with Lindbergh nearby. Condon talked with someone called John. He accepted $50,000 (the original amount) saying the baby was on boat named Nelly at Martha’s Vineyard in Massachusetts. The search in Martha’s Vineyard turned up nothing. “John” was paid in gold certificates whose serial numbers were recorded. Condon was certain he would recognize “John” if seen again.

Evening Star. (Washington, DC), May. 12 1932. https://www.loc.gov/item/sn83045462/1932-05-12/ed-2/.
Public Domain

The accidental discovery of a baby found partly buried and badly decomposed four and half miles southeast of the Lindbergh home on 12 May 1932 ended all hopes the baby was alive. Injuries sustained to its head indicated the child had died during the abduction. Death was caused by a blow to the head and had been dead for two months. The body was positively identified as the Lindbergh baby and was later cremated. The Lindbergh’s, deeply saddened by the whole affair, left the area and donated the house to a charity. Investigators rechecked everyone connected with Lindbergh and John Condon finding nothing. National outrage over the kidnapping resulted in President Roosevelt directed the U.S. Bureau of Investigation (renamed later to Federal Bureau of Investigation) to investigate. The Federal Kidnapping Act was passed by Congress on 12 June 1932. Known as the Lindbergh Law, it made kidnapping across state lines a federal offense and those convicted facing the death penalty.

Aftermath

President Roosevelt directed the FBI, and all federal investigative agencies assist the State of New Jersey, with the FBI being the clearinghouse for information. Alerts went out to watch for any of the ransom money being used at New York banks. A $25,000 reward was offered by the New Jersey State Police for information leading to the arrest and conviction of the kidnapper(s). The reward notice was sent out nationally but nothing would occur. Unfortunately this also led to a lot of fraudulent claims but both New Jersey and the FBI continued following every lead they had. Some ransom gold certificates started showing in commercial bank deposits but they were still unable to locate the person or persons using them. Then the FBI got a major break. One of the gold certificates was used at a gas station in New York City. The attendant was suspicious of the man using the gold certificate and recorded the license number.

It was traced to a Bronx residence who matched the description of John who Condon had met with. On 10 Sept 1934, Bruno Hauptmann was arrested and a $20 gold certificate from the ransom payment was found on him. More gold certificates would be found, and his penmanship was like what the kidnapper(s) used. Hauptmann claimed he was holding the money for Isidore Fisch, who had returned to Germany and had died. Hauptmann was indicted for murder on 8 Oct 1934. He went on trial in January 1935. This “trial of the century” was mostly circumstantial rather than direct evidence. Condon’s telephone number though was found on a closet door frame and Lindbergh recognized his voice as the one heard the night of the ransom payment. Hauptmann took the stand in his defense claiming he was innocent. He claimed he was beaten by the police and forced to give handwriting samples. He was found guilty on 13 February 1935. His legal appeals, including to the U.S. Supreme Court were rejected. He was executed on 3 April 1936.

There have been many books over the years that dispute the fingerprints, the police methods and the investigation claiming he was at best innocent or worse framed for the crime. Some have argued that Lindbergh himself was responsible though the outcome of the dead infant was unplanned. Others have sifted through all the evidence and found the evidence compelling enough to warrant the conviction. The strongest support of that is he fit the description that Condon gave, and Lindbergh recognized his voice.

Alternative History: The Plot Against America

A more fantastic idea comes from the alternative history novel The Plot Against America by Phillip Roth. In this book, Lindbergh becomes president in 1940 instead of Franklin Roosevelt. As president, he signs peace accords with both Nazi Germany and Japan keeping the U.S. out of the war during his time in office. He also enacts policies against the Jews and other things that start moving America more towards a fascist state. After his presidency ends (he flies off and disappears never to be seen again), it is revealed that the Germans had organized the kidnapping and brought his child to Germany. They used this as leverage to compel Lindbergh to enact policies in line with the Nazi’s. At the same time, it was spread that Jew’s were responsible for the kidnapping encouraging antisemitism in America.

However, Lindbergh was not as keen in doing what they wanted (about the Jews in particular) and resisted. His vice president though was in tune with implementing the more radical policies they favored. It is not clear what really happened to Lindbergh. Was his plane brought down by engine failure, did he deliberately crash his plane, or did the Nazi’s have something to do with it? His disappearance allowed the vice president to take control and operate more like an authoritarian leader the Nazi’s would approve of lending credence to this theory. It fell apart thanks to Lindbergh’s wife taking to the radio and asking for it to stop. It does and ultimately Roosevelt would be president in the next election ending the Nazi plot.

 

Sources

Ray, Michael. “Lindbergh baby kidnapping.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified February 20, 2026. Accessed March 17, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/event/Lindbergh-baby-kidnapping.

“Lindbergh Kidnapping.” FBI. Accessed March 17, 2026. https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/lindbergh-kidnapping.

“Lindbergh Baby Kidnapped | March 1, 1932 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified February 18, 2026. Accessed March 17, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/march-1/lindbergh-baby-kidnapped.

“Kidnapped Lindbergh Baby Found Dead | May 12, 1932 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified January 31, 2025. Accessed March 17, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/may-12/body-of-lindbergh-baby-found.

History, Religion

Happy St.Patrick’s Day! (March 17)

 

“Hail illustrious pontiff, pastor of Hibernia’s flock! O Patrick! holy bishop! the guardian of our people! pray for us daily to the King of glory!”
Image: True Restoration via Pinterest.com

St. Patrick is the patron saint of Ireland and known for bringing Christianity to Ireland. He was born in 390 A.D in Britain and raised by a Christian family. However, he was not much interested in God and at the time was illiterate. When he was 16, he was kidnapped and taken to Ireland where he was forced to work as a shepherd on a hillside. All alone except for his sheep and captors. he began to cry out to God for rescue him. He had a dream in which God revealed himself and that he would be going home.

Risking his life, he boarded a ship for Britain where he returned to his family. He was welcomed back but realized that he had been transformed by God. He entered a monastery to pursue his calling as a Catholic priest. As a result of his education, he came to understand Holy Scripture and impressed his peers and superiors with his character. He would be made a bishop in due course. Nearly three decades after this slavery in Ireland, he felt a call from God that he had to return to Ireland and spread the word of Jesus to a people who had become lost. This was no easy journey for him since travel was difficult but he faced hostility from those who opposed him trying to convert people away from paganism. Patrick was ready though to face the trials that might take his life (he was attacked and beaten by thugs and Irish royalty disdained him) and persevered in proclaiming the Gospel and training converts.

His courageous leadership and his crisscrossing the countryside paid off as thousands and more would be converted. Churches were being established and he was training those to shepherd the church after he was gone. He would die on March 17, 461 A.D. He has been venerated as a saint and patron saint of Ireland since then by the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Lutheran churches.

St. Patrick’s Day postcard, 1912 of “Old Weir Bridge” at Dinis Cottage, in Killarney National Park, Ireland.
Public Domain/Wikipedia

In Ireland it is a solemnity and thus a holy day of obligation. It is also a cultural day as well to celebrate Ireland. Traditionally many in Ireland will wear shamrocks, wear green, attend Mass, watch parades, have a special breakfast and dinner, and of course celebrate by having a beer in their favorite pub (or outside due to the crowds). It has been a public holiday in Ireland since 1903. Since the feast does fall within Lent and is a solemnity in Ireland, it is permissible to eat foods normally excluded during this time (or any food you have selected to give up). Outside of Ireland though, it is not and local bishops will offer guidance. Usually, the bishop will allow those who wish to celebrate to be excused from Friday obligation of fasting but may require you to fast on a different day in the week or the following one.

Fun Fact

Many people associate Corned Beef and Cabbage as an Irish dish for St. Patrick’s Day (please do not say St. Paddy’s Day!). However, it is not an Irish dish but an Irish American one. In Ireland of the past, land was precious due to the English seizing lots of it for themselves (and putting many Irish people into indentured servitude in the American Colonies). So, people did not have lots of land needed for cows to graze on (you might have a cow for milk but that would be it). Pigs became popular because they require no grazing, can be easily penned, and thus cheaper to keep. So, while possibly in the far past they used beef, pork became the preferred meat for many meals and especially for St. Patrick’s Day. When Irish migrated to the United States much later (due to the famine), they discovered corned beef when they saw it being used in Jewish delicatessens. So, like dumping turnips for the American pumpkin for the Jack o’ Lantern, corned beef became popular amongst many Irish people since it was easily available unlike in Ireland. And thus, was born the now popular Corned Beef and Cabbage amongst Irish Americans.

In Ireland, Paddy’s Day (as it is called there), corned beef and cabbage is rarely eaten (except in places that cater the American crowd). Most will have the Irish Fry (bacon, eggs, fried tomatoes, black pudding, and brown soda bread). Tea is incredibly popular in Ireland so it will be at every meal as well. Additionally, scones will be served during the day. For dinner it is often a beef pot roast (roast met with mashed potatoes, peas, carrots and gray). Another popular meal might be Irish bangers and mash as well. Apple tarts or other treats will be served as well. There are many regional variations as well.

The Minstrel Boy

Probably one of the most favored Irish tunes is The Minstrel Boy. Here is a version from Star Trek: The Next Generation episode The Wounded. Following it is a more traditional version. Finally, there is a version from the American Civil War. Additional lyrics were added to it in the version popular in the Union Army.

Happy St. Patrick’s Day!

 

Sources

———. “Who Was St. Patrick? His Life, Death and Legacy | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified March 10, 2026. Accessed March 16, 2026. https://www.history.com/articles/who-was-saint-patrick.

———. “St. Patrick’s Day 2026: Who Was the Real St. Patrick?” Almanac.Com. Last modified March 6, 2026. Accessed March 16, 2026. https://www.almanac.com/content/st-patricks-day.

O’Raifeartaigh, Tarlach. “St. Patrick.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified March 13, 2026. Accessed March 16, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Patrick.

———. “St. Patrick – Saints & Angels – Catholic Online.” Catholic Online. Accessed March 16, 2026. https://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=89.

“St. Patrick: The Irish Legend.” Grokipedia. Last modified January 3, 2026. Accessed March 16, 2026. https://grokipedia.com/page/st_patrick_the_irish_legend.

History

Remembering the Balvano Train Disaster (2-3 Mar 1944)

[This has been updated from 2025 with a minor rewrite, updating source material, and adding a new video on the tragedy.]

During World War II one of the deadliest train disasters occurred in Italy when around 500-650 people suffocated to death.

Balvano station master points the direction by which the train left. The tunnel shown is not the Armi tunnel, which is two kilometers further.
3 March 1944, Unknown Author
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Freight train 8017 began its journey on 2 March 1944 departing Naples for Portenza arriving at the Battipaglia station after 6 pm. Although a freight train both civilians and military personnel commonly hopped aboard. It then continued till it reached Balvano, the last train stop between the two long tunnels in the Apennines Mountains, it had 650 people aboard. It reached the stop near midnight and had to stop for maintenance

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Books on Railroad Disasters

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At ten minutes to 1 am, the train began its ascent into the Galleria delle Amri. The tunnel was poorly ventilated with 1.3% grade. Not long after entering the tunnel the train came to complete stop for 30 minutes. The exact reasons are still unclear. Either the train could not pull the overloaded freight cars, or it was waiting for another train to exit from the opposite direction. Some argue that humidity had caused the train wheels to slip, and sandboxes were not helping.

Due to wartime restrictions, the train was using low grade coal resulting in excess amounts odorless carbon monoxide that filled the tunnel. The train driver tried reversing but fainted before this could be done. Complicating this was the two-locomotive setup and neither could communicate with the other due to differing locomotive models. The other driver was trying to push the train forward. A brakeman walked back to Balvano getting there around 5:10 am and a locomotive was quickly dispatched. By the time it arrived, it was too late. Passengers fleeing the rail cars for better air suffocated to death in the tunnel. Only 40 people in the last freight cars were found alive. The only train crew to survive were the brakeman and fireman from the second locomotive. The train was brought back to Balvano and the grim task of removing the bodies had begun.

Some of the corpses taken from the Italian passenger train that stalled in tunnel.
5 March 1944, Author Unknown.
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Both the US and Italians kept the disaster out of the news and a commission established to determine the cause blamed it on low quality coal and on railroad personnel allowing stowaways. The railroad company, Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane, declined all responsibility due to wartime restrictions and agreements between Italy and the U.S. Fifteen years later after considerable criticism, the Italian government would issue compensation to those identified as stowaways.

Changes were made to the running of trains: restrictions on freight tonnage and initially using both steam and diesel locomotives until steam locomotives were banned. The line was eventually electrified, and no such disaster has occurred again. Except for the train crew that were given proper graves, most of the stowaways were buried in four mass graves in the Balvano cemetery. The disaster showed how a combination of factors– poor ventilation, lack of communication between train drivers, overloaded freight trains, poor quality coal, and allowing stowaways–all contributed to one of the largest train disasters in history.

Books on Railroad Disasters

Sources

———. “More Than 500 Train Passengers Mysteriously Suffocate | March 2, 1944 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified May 27, 2025. Accessed March 16, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/March-2/train-passengers-suffocate.

Bruno, Antonio. “The Tragedy of the Balvano Train Disaster. – TerreDaMare.” TerreDaMare. Last modified June 12, 2022. Accessed March 16, 2026. https://terredamare.com/comuni/balvano.

Nag, Oishimaya Sen. “Deadliest Train &Amp; Railroad Accidents in History.” WorldAtlas. Last modified April 25, 2017. Accessed March 16, 2026. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/deadliest-train-and-railroad-accidents-in-history.html.

“ITALY: Death Train.” TIME.Com. Last modified April 2, 1951. Accessed March 16, 2026. https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,814495,00.html.

“Balvano Train Disaster.” Grokipedia. Last modified January 17, 2026. Accessed March 16, 2026. https://grokipedia.com/page/Balvano_train_disaster.

History

Welcome To March

March, from the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, a book of prayers to be said at canonical hours. Manuscript illumination from Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry Folio 3, verso: March. Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

 

Welcome to March! March, named for the Roman deity Mars (Greek Ares), is the third month. It begins spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere. Since military campaigns would start once winter ended, the Romans considered it appropriate to name the month after the god of war. Festivals honoring him and seeking his blessing were held in ancient Rome.

On the meteorological calendar, March 1 marks the start of spring (or autumn in the Southern Hemisphere), but astronomically it begins with the March equinox. This falls between March 19 and 21, when the Sun shines directly on the equator, making night and day almost equal in length. The March equinox is celebrated as a time of rebirth, with new plants emerging—leading to the phrase “spring forth,” now simply “spring.” Increased warmth causes snowmelt, swelling rivers and replenishing water supplies for people and nature. Areas with little or no snow may see spring up to a month earlier, while far northern regions may not experience it until May.

George Hodan (publicdomainpictures.net)

St. Patrick’s Day (March 17) is one of the most popular celebrations in March. As the patron saint of Ireland, it is a public holiday there but nowhere else. Easter and Passover may also fall in March some years due to complex, varying calculations. For Christians, March often includes Lent: forty days of fasting, penance, and charity in preparation for Easter Sunday.

Beware the Ides of March!

The Death of Julius Caesar,Vincenzo Camuccini (1771–1844).
Public Domain

The Ides were one of three fixed days in the ancient Roman calendar. They fell on the 15th in March, May, July, and October, and on the 13th in other months. Because the early Romans used a lunar calendar, the Ides could sometimes carry foreboding omens. However, since March marked the start of the new year in the old Roman calendar, it was generally festive—until March 15, 44 BC, when Julius Caesar was assassinated. The event transformed the Ides of March into a symbol of danger and betrayal, leading to Caesar’s death, retribution against his killers, and the rise of the Roman Empire. Thereafter, “Beware the Ides of March” became a warning of impending misfortune.

In Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, the soothsayer famously warns:

Soothsayer: Beware the Ides of March.

Caesar: What man is that?

Brutus: A soothsayer bids you beware the Ides of March.

Though the phrase may have existed earlier, Shakespeare popularized it, embedding it in educated speech and broader culture. Its use has faded as fewer schools require Shakespeare, often met with blank stares today. Still, as the Ides of March approach, the warning occasionally resurfaces to recall Caesar’s assassination.

Sources

———. “The Month of March 2026: Holidays, Fun Facts, Folklore.” Almanac.Com. Last modified February 19, 2026. Accessed March 1, 2026. https://www.almanac.com/content/month-march-holidays-fun-facts-folklore.

“The Month of March.” Accessed March 1, 2026. https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/months/march.html.

Byrd, Deborah. “March Equinox 2026: Here’s All You Need to Know.” EarthSky | Updates on Your Cosmos and World. Last modified December 24, 2025. Accessed March 1, 2026. https://earthsky.org/astronomy-essentials/everything-you-need-to-know-vernal-or-spring-equinox/.

Martin, Gary. “The Ides of March – Meaning &Amp; Origin of the Phrase.” Phrase Finder. Last modified December 20, 2023. Accessed March 1, 2026. https://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/beware-the-ides-of-march.html.

Stezano, Martín. “Beware the Ides of March. But Why? | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified February 18, 2026. https://www.history.com/articles/beware-the-ides-of-march-but-why.

“What Is the Origin of ‘Beware the Ides of March’?,” February 3, 2025. Accessed March 1, 2026. https://www.dictionary.com/articles/ides-of-march.

History, Holidays

Today is President George Washington’s Birthday (President’s Day-US)

George Washington (1732–99) by Gilbert Stuart
Photo: Public Domain (Wikimedia Commons)

Although today is referred to as “President’s Day” it is not a federal holiday by that name. It is officially designated as Washington’s Birthday under federal law. There was a movement to combine both Washington and Lincoln’s birthday (since they occur days apart) or honor the office of president. That never came to be. Instead in 1968 the Uniform Monday Holiday Act was passed and came into force in 1971. That shifted most federal holidays to a Monday if it fell during the week. Washington’s Birthday name was not changed and so under federal law it is still Washington’s Birthday. However, many states issue their own proclamations celebrating not only Washington but Lincoln and others from their own state. Advertisers have caught on as well. So today many call it President’s Day but who it commemorates beyond George Washington is up to the state governors.

The unity of Government, which constitutes you one people, is also now dear to you. It is justly so; for it is a main pillar in the edifice of your real independence, the support of your tranquility at home, your peace abroad; of your safety; of your prosperity; of that very Liberty, which you so highly prize.
President George Washington, Farewell Address, 19 September 1799.

 

For More Information

“George Washington.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified February 13, 2026. Accessed February 15, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-Washington.

HISTORY.com Editors. “George Washington: Facts, Revolution & Presidency.” HISTORY. Last modified November 13, 2025. Accessed February 15, 2026. https://www.history.com/articles/george-washington.

“George Washington.” George Washington’s Mount Vernon. Accessed February 15, 2026. https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington.

History

St. Valentine’s Day Massacre (14 Feb 1929)

Al Capone Mug Shot 1939
Al Capone mug shot, May 16 1929, Chicago, Illinois
Source: FBI

On 14 February 1929, the world was shocked by a massacre that took place in Chicago’s North Side. Gang warfare had become part of life in Chicago during the 1920’s as gangs jockeyed for control of the lucrative illegal trades in alcohol, gambling, and prostitution. The massacre that took place would make political leaders realize that Chicago was in serious trouble. And of one the most notorious of them was Al Capone.

Al Capone had risen to power over the years by taking over his rival’s crime rackets by force. In 1924 16 gang related murders were recorded and continued to grow each year. Since the problem was deemed a local and state issue, the U.S. federal government had little jurisdiction to investigate. While the bootlegging was a violation of federal law, none of the other crime operations were. Capone had pretty much bought control of Chicago through bribing police officers, judges, and politicians. Even if someone got elected on the promise to go after him, it was difficult with so many already on his side.

One of Capone’s major rivals was the Irish gangster George “Bugs” Moran who ran the bootlegging operation of a garage at 2122 North Clark Street. Gunmen dressed as police officers entered the garage and pretended to arrest them. The fake cops lined up the seven men facing the wall and opened fire killing them all (one did survive but died afterwards). At least 70 rounds of ammunition were used in the massacre. Moran was not there but he and others quickly blamed Al Capone, but he was conveniently in Florida at the time. No one was ever brought to trial for the murders and to this day remains one of the biggest unsolved crimes in history.

The St. Valentine’s Day Massacre ended any major opposition to Capone in Chicago. The North Side gang never recovered its power or place though Moran kept some control of it before leaving the city and his gang behind in the 1930’s. Capone was now the undisputed boss of the Chicago syndicate and was dubbed as Public Enemy No. 1 by the press. The massacre got the attention of federal authorities who began a grand jury to look into it. Capone did not appear to testify as ordered in March 1929 but did later resulting in his arrest for contempt of court. He was out on bond when down in Philadelphia he was arrested in May for having concealed weapons. He was sentenced to prison but ran his operation from there until he was released on good behavior nine months later. He would later be convicted of contempt of court in February 1931 and sent to Cook County Jail for six months.

The next phase of the action against Capone was to hit him in his operations and to investigate his sources of money for tax purposes. The famous Eliott Ness and his team tried to strike directly by raiding and shutting down his operations. The other operation was the investigation of the sources of his income. Special Agent Frank Wilson and others in the Internal Revenue Service did what is called forensic accounting to find out exactly how much Capone was earning from his illicit operations. It meant a lot of tracking down information and getting witnesses to provide key information, but it paid off. Wilson was able to show that Capone was failing to report his income as required by law and thus get him indicted and later convicted of tax evasion. To anyone watching, it must have been surreal. While everyone applauds Ness and his Untouchables, it was ultimately Capone’s failure to pay his taxes that got him sent to jail. He never recovered his place with the Chicago outfit and ultimately, because of syphilis, became an invalid. He was released from jail in 1939 and died a recluse in his Florida home in 1947. Public Enemy No I was no more.

Sources

———. “St. Valentine’s Day Massacre – Victims, Evidence & Suspects | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified May 28, 2025. Accessed February 14, 2026. https://www.history.com/articles/saint-valentines-day-massacre.

“Saint Valentine’s Day Massacre.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified February 7, 2026. Accessed February 14, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/event/Saint-Valentines-Day-Massacre.

History, Religion

Valentine’s Day (14 Feb)

Shrine of St. Valentine in Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church in Dublin, Ireland
Photo: Blackfish (Wikimedia Commons)

Valentine’s Day is used by many to show their affection or love for someone they care about. It has spawned an industry for greeting card makers, candies, and of course flowers. However, there is a real religious component as many Christian denominations celebrate it as feast day, commemoration, or optional for the local diocese (such as the Catholic Church). Valentine was the name of many Christian martyrs in the early Church resulting in them all being remembered for their acts of sacrifice for the faith. Some denominations, such as Eastern Orthodox Church, celebrate a particular St. Valentine on two different days.

The association with romantic love could be linked to an ancient Roman festival has been made but there is no evidence of any link. Most seem to believe the link began with Chaucer’s Parlemont of Foules where he indicates birds choose their mates on St. Valentine’s Day although 14 Feb might not be the day Chaucer was referring to. Other poems made the association of love and St. Valentine’s Day in the medieval period and English Renaissance. For those who needed love verses but lacked the ability to compose them, publishers started offering them. Then putting them on paper and sending them became possible. Paper valentines became very popular in 19th century England resulting in their industrial production. They became popular in the United States as well. With such cards being popular, you needed other things to accompany a card. Roses and chocolates became popular, likely due to skillful marketing to associate them with the day. And so, Valentine’s Day became a very major day for greeting card companies, chocolate makers, and sellers of flowers (roses being the most popular flower for the day).

But Who Was Saint Valentine?

Saint Valentine is a Christian martyr who died in the 3rd century on April 14 but owing to the confusion there were at least three people named Saint Valentine, his actual history is lacking. One Saint Valentine was a priest and physician in Rome who was martyred in 270 AD under the reign of Claudius II Gothicus (reigned 268-270 AD). He was buried on the Via Flaminia and a basilica was reportedly put over it by Pope Julius I. Archaeological excavations have shown that a found evidence of the tomb. During the thirteenth century his relics were moved to the Church of Praxedes near the Basilica of St. Mary Major where they are today. A small church built near the Flaminian Gate (today called Porta de Popolo) was called in the twelfth century “the Gate of St. Valentine” adding more weight to this Saint Valentine.

The second Saint Valentine was reportedly the bishop of Terni, Italy (Interamna at the time). He too was arrested and martyred during the same emperor. However, it is not clear whether he was executed in Rome or in Terni. Some argue that St. Valentine I and Saint Valentine II are the same person and the accounts got jumbled up. There has been confusion in the past with two people who became saints sharing the same name. Usually, they have something extra added to differentiate (St. John of the Cross vs. St. John of Damascus). It is possible that there were two men named Valentine, one a priest in Rome and the other in Terni. We simply have no way of knowing.

The third St. Valentine was martyred in Africa along with his companions during the same period and possibly under the same emperor. In this case, there is nothing further known at all. Just a mention of it and no one can say for sure whether this is true or not. With three St. Valentine’s all claiming to have suffered martyrdom, all the church can say is that they died as martyrs for their faith. In 1969 St. Valentine was removed from the general Roman calendar making the commemoration of his feast day optional. As in the case of all saints so designated, it is up to the local bishops to decide whether to it observed. For example, the feast of St. Patrick is a solemnity in Ireland and in the diocese of New York but not elsewhere. St. Valentine is still considered a martyr by the Catholic church.

Sources

“St. Valentine.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified February 5, 2026. Accessed February 14, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Valentine.

“Saint Julius.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed February 14, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Julius-I.

———. “Valentine’s Day 2026: Origins & Holiday Traditions | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified February 6, 2026. https://www.history.com/articles/history-of-valentines-day.

“History of St. Valentine.” CERC. Last modified October 19, 2000. Accessed February 14, 2026. https://catholiceducation.org/en/culture/history-of-st-valentine.html.