History

Battle of Lake Erie (10 Sept 1813)

Battle of Lake Erie by William Henry Powell (1823–1879)
U.S. Senate Art Collection, U.S. Capitol, Washington D.C.
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

 During the War of 1812, control over Lake Erie and the Northwest were crucial to both the British and the United States. The War of 1812 between the British and the United States resulted from simmering tensions between the two since the end of the American War of Independence. Though long over by this time, tensions existed between the two.  The British had attempted to restrict U.S. trade. During the Napoleonic Wars, the U.S. was neutral, but the British were not happy with American merchant ships supplying the French with supplies. Another issue was the forced impressment of American seamen. To fill out their crews, the British Royal Navy would stop merchant ships and take some of their crews forcing them into Royal Navy service. Additionally, tension over the U.S. desire to expand its territory led to clashes with the British as well.

These and other things led President James Madison to declare war on Great Britain on 18 June 1812. While it passed Congress (barely), it was not popular in New England since they heavily relied on trade. Western and Southern states generally supported the war. However, the realities of war would soon set in. The attempt to take Canada was a failure and resulted in a humiliating defeat on 16 August 1812 with Detroit being surrendered without firing a shot. The American Navy was aided early on with the fact the British were also fighting Napoleon so not all their ships were committed. One notable naval battle was at Lake Michigan in 1813. At stake in this battle was control of Detroit, Lake Erie, and nearby territories the U.S had claims on.

The American naval forces were led by Captain Oliver Hazard Perry, who had nine ships. The British had six warships led by Commander Robert Heriot Barclay. Barclay was an experienced naval officer who had served under Nelson at Trafalgar. The British were armed with long gun cannons that gave them a range of about a full mile, while the Americans used carronades that had half the range of the British cannons. This meant that Perry would inflict a lot of damage but at closer range. At first the wind was against Perry in the morning and then shifted giving him an advantage. He would raise a famous navy-blue banner written with the words “DON’T GIVE UP THE SHIP” as the slogan to rally his officers.

The ensuing battle would last for hours, and Perry would lose his flagship Lawrence. He transferred his flag over to the Niagara and then sailed straight into the British line firing broadsides that ultimately gave him the win when they surrendered. Perry lost 27 sailors and 96 wounded, while the British lost 40 dead and left with 94 wounded. Perry sent a famous dispatch to U.S. General William Henry Harrison that said, “We have met the enemy, and they are ours.” The British were forced to abandon Detroit after the Battle of the Thames resulting in American control of the area.

Aftermath

The victory was an important one when many battles had gone against the United States. The Royal Navy was still fighting Napoleon so not of its navy was committed to North America. This would change in April 1814 when Napoleon was defeated. With both ships and troops now freed up, they raided Chesapeake Bay and moved on the capital of Washington D.C. burning it and other government buildings to the ground on 24 August 1814.

On 11 September 1814, the American navy defeated the British fleet at the Battle of Plattsburgh at Lake Champlain, New York. A furious battle at Fort McHenry in Baltimore took place on 13 September 1814 and withstood 25 hours of bombardment by the British navy. After the bombardment had ended, the Americans raised a large flag over the fort to show they had survived the bombardment. Seeing the flag being raised inspired Francis Scott Key to write a poem that later would be set to music called “Star Spangled Banner.” British forces withdrew and prepared to act against New Orleans. Negotiations for a peace settlement were undertaken not long after in Ghent (modern day Belgium). The resulting Treaty of Ghent would abolish the taking of American sailors from merchant ships for British naval service, solidify the borders of Canada as we know them today, and end British attempts to create an Indian state in the Northwest. The treaty was signed on Christmas Eve, 1814. Formal ratification would be in February 1815.

It was during this time that the famous Battle of New Orleans would occur. On 8 January 1815, British forces (unaware of the peace deal yet due to slow communications of the time) launched a major attack on New Orleans. General Andrew Jackson led the Americans in this famous battle and defeated the British soundly. News of the battle was another boost to American morale and likely convinced the British that they were right to get out of this war as well. For Canadians and Native Americans, it ended their attempt to govern themselves. For Americans, it ushered in a new time of good feelings ending the partisan divisions that had grown since the Revolutionary War. National self-confidence would ensue and a growing spirit of expansionism that would shape the rest of the 19th century. The country resulting from it would be comprised of states and territories that went from New York on the Atlantic Ocean to San Francisco on the Pacific making it one of the largest countries in the world.

Sources

———. “Battle of Lake Erie | Naval Warfare, Perry’s Victory & Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified September 3, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Lake-Erie.

“War of 1812.” History.Com. Last modified April 24, 2023. Accessed September 4, 2024. https://www.history.com/topics/19th-century/war-of-1812.

 

 

History

Siege of Leningrad Begins (8 September 1941)

On 8 Sep 1941, German forces began their siege of Leningrad that would last 872 days making it one of the most grueling sieges in modern warfare. Let’s find out more about it.

The fire of anti-aircraft guns deployed in the neighborhood of St. Isaac’s cathedral during the defense of Leningrad (now called St. Petersburg, its pre-Soviet name) in 1941.
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Leningrad (formerly known as St. Petersburg and capital of Russia before the Communist takeover in 1918), was a major industrial center and the Soviet Union’s second largest city. When Germany in June 1941, many of the city’s industrial plants and inhabitants were relocated far to the east to prevent capture. Two million were left behind though to face the rapidly moving German army. Everyone who could lift a shovel (men, women, and children) were conscripted to build anti-tank fortifications around the city’s edge. The railway to Moscow was cut off at the end of July by German forces and they were starting to penetrate the outer fortifications of the city.  On 8 September, German forces began besieging the city but were held back by the fortifications and the tenacity of the defenders, some 200,000 Red Army soldiers. German bombers destroyed a warehouse containing food making life more difficult for the defenders.

Germans next moved to seal off the remaining highways and rail lines south of the city. Finnish forces joined the Germans by coming down the Karelian Isthmus in the north so that by November the entire city was encircled. German bombings intensified with raids several times a day. Most people were reduced to eating one slice of bread per day and starvation was rampant. One of the coldest winters on record would set in as well adding to the misery of the inhabitants. Many continued to work to produce arms to help defeat the Germans despite the lack of food and warmth as well. Just about anything that could be burned for heat was used from books to furniture. Pets (dogs and cats) were eaten along with animals from the city zoo. Wallpaper paste was used for food and leather boiled to make an edible jelly. Plants, grasses and weeds were put to use to produce vitamin supplements. Cannabilizing the dead was a major issue resulting in the Leningrad police department having a special unit to handle it.

Some supplies were able to be brought in over Lake Ladoga, but it was very small and not enough to alleviate the conditions in the city. Some were evacuated-mostly elderly and children-but many were unable to leave and starved and or froze to death. In June 1943 the Soviet Army was able break through the German blockade and establish a better supply line along the shores of Lake Ladoga. The city was kept alive through this and later an oil pipeline and electric cables were connected to the city despite the ongoing siege. When spring came in 1943, land was put to use so that by summer produce could be grown. The siege would end when the Soviet Army forced the German army to retreat in January 1944. The siege ended but the human toll was enormous. Over a million died. Survivors got the Order of Lenin in 1945. The population of Leningrad (now renamed to St. Petersburg) did not regain its former population of three million until the 1960’s.

St. Petersburg, Petrograd, Leningrad?

St. Petersburg was found in 1703 by Tsar Peter the Great and named after the apostle St. Peter. Until 1918, it served as capital of the Russian Empire when it was moved by the Bolsheviks to Moscow. The city was both a cultural center as well as the capital in old Russia. At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the city was renamed Petrograd because of the strong anti-German sentiment and the fact its name contained two German words. In 1924 after Lenin’s death, the city was renamed for him, Leningrad. In 1991 a public referendum approved the renaming of the city back to St. Petersburg. The city is a major tourist destination owing to its cultural and historical significance. An old guidebook reminds the city is spread out, so be prepared to spend time going to and from the various historical sites. Summers can be warm and sometimes rainy (bring waterproof jackets and something to wear if it gets chilly as well). Winters are cold, so bring cold gear. Surprisingly St. Petersburg is not as cold as Moscow during the winter.

St. Petersburg, Russia. View from the visitor’s gallery at the Colonnade of the St. Isaac’s Cathedral.
2012
A.Savin via Wikimedia Commons

Sources:

Dean, Mack. “Siege of Leningrad | World War 2 Facts.” World War 2 Facts, October 21, 2020. http://www.worldwar2facts.org/siege-of-leningrad.html.

———. “Siege of Leningrad | Nazi Germany, World War II, Blockade.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified September 1, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/event/Siege-of-Leningrad.

———. “Siege of Leningrad Begins.” HISTORY, September 2, 2020. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/siege-of-leningrad-begins.

 

History

Great Fire of London (2-6 Sept 1666)

The Great Fire of London in 1666 would decimate London, result in its rebuilding, and changes in how buildings and streets were laid out in the city. 

The Great Fire of London by anonymous 1675
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

In 1666, London was a huge city and the capital of Britain. While many of the important homes and buildings were often made of stone, most homes and buildings were made of oak and often used tar to weatherproof them. Streets were also narrow with buildings close together making it hard for people and carts to move about on narrow streets. Sanitation was also poor since many people tossed their garbage-and chamber pots-into the street. The modern toilet had not been invented so most bodily waste went into these pots. Add to it horse manure on the streets, and most cities like London had some unpleasant odors especially in summertime.

Firefighting was also different back then. It comprised mainly of local bucket brigades and primitive water pumps on trucks. Since fire was considered a serious threat, people were told to be vigilant and make sure their homes were safe. However, as it turns out, people were not always so careful. On the evening of 1 September 1666 Thomas Farrinor, a baker employed by King Charles II on Pudding Lane, went to bed not making sure that the fire is his oven was properly extinguished. Sometime during the night sparks from the dying embers in the oven ignited firewood lying nearby. Not long after the house would soon become engulfed in flames. Farrinor and his family would flee and survive the fire. Sadly, a maid in the home did not survive as she did not want to jump out of the window.

Sparks from the fire would spread across the street to the Star Inn. It ignited the straw in the stables along with other combustibles and soon the inn was ablaze. The fire would spread from there to Thames Street. Warehouses on the riverfront would soon ignite as well. Full of candles, lamp oil, tallow and coal, the fire would grow larger and begin to spread. The local fire brigade was quickly overwhelmed and had to retreat. The primitive water fighting trucks of the time could barely navigate the streets. Panic ensued as people raced to the Thames with everything they owned. Attempts at using firebreaks by tearing down homes and buildings was tried but the fire overwhelmed them. The fire got so bright it could be seen 30 miles away. Finally on 5 September it started dying out and on the next day it was put out. There was one flare up in the Temple district but when a building containing gunpowder blew up with a powerful bang, the last remnants of the fire was over.

Four-fifths of London was destroyed and remarkably only 16 died. But 100,000 were homeless. The fire burned down the historic St. Paul’s Cathedral along with scores of other churches, buildings, and historic landmarks. King Charles II had a massive task to rebuild the city. He commissioned noted architect Sir Christopher Wren to rebuild St. Paul’s which still stands to this day. New homes and buildings had to be built with bricks and stones; wood was not allowed. And walls had to be thicker and buildings not so close together. Also, streets were widened and the old narrow streets and alleys banned. Access to the river was made easier as well by restricting housing that would block access. The homeless were suggested to go to other cities, towns, and villages outside of London to resettle. Economically it would take many years for London to recover. Most businesses had lost their premises and whatever goods were stored. The commercial district lost a lot of its businesses as they relocated elsewhere. London’s access to shipping routes and that it was the capital kept the city from completely losing its place in the world.

One of the more disturbing aftereffects was the strong anti-Catholic and anti-foreign sentiment that emerged. While most reasoned after studying how the fire began it was an accident, there were many who believed Catholics, Dutch, and French were involved. Opponents of pro- Catholic King Charles II made it an issue. That is why in the Monument that was put up in 1670’s had an inscription on it blaming the disaster on the “treachery and malice of the Popish faction.” This was removed in 1830 but at one time practicing Catholicism in England was forbidden and those who refused to recognize the sovereignty of the monarch over the Pope would be executed usually by the horrific method of being hung, drawn, and quartered.

Sadly, the rebuilding scheme did not reshape London as it was originally hoped. They kept pretty much the old layout. Had some of the plans suggested, such as Wren’s, London would have rivaled Paris. Insurance companies were born out of this disaster to help aid those who lost homes or buildings to fire. They began to hire private firemen and to promote safety measures with their clients. This did lead to conflicts with local fire brigades and the private firemen hired by these insurance companies. Ultimately it led a combined fire unit called the London Fire Brigade in 1832, which began the process of permanent fire departments being established to put out fires.

As for the man who started the fire, Thomas Farriner, he would rebuild his shop on Pudding Lane and continue baking until he passed away in 1670. Members of the Worshipful Company of Bakers in 1986 apologized for the fire and put up a plaque on Pudding Lane that one of their own had caused the Great Fire of 1666.

Sources:

———. “Great Fire of London | Great Plague, Charles II, Firefighting.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified August 26, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Fire-of-London.

———. “Great Fire of London Begins.” HISTORY, August 30, 2024. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/great-fire-of-london-begins.

Hradmin. “Thomas Farriner: The Man Who Started Great Fire of London.” The History Reader. Last modified July 21, 2023. https://www.thehistoryreader.com/world-history/thomas-farriner/.

Titanic

Bronze Statue Found in Recent Dive Expedition (3 Sep 2024)

Diana of Versailles bronze statue. It was on the fireplace mantel in the First Class Lounge. It was last seen in 1986 but subsequent expeditions could not find it until now.
Image: RMS Titanic, Inc ®

In a remarkable find during the recent expedition to Titanic was the discovery of a miniature bronze statue once thought lost since 1986. The statue- Diana of Versailles– was on the fireplace mantel in the First Class lounge on Titanic. After 1986 subsequent expeditions were unable to locate it until 2024. The discovery has brought much excitement and shows that after all the time underwater it is still in relatively good condition. Sadly, however, the iconic bow has suffered. The railing that surrounds the forecastle has collapsed, but otherwise is still intact. While some newspapers are saying that the ship is collapsing, that is not the case. It is slowly decaying as evidenced by photos of the wreck taken over the years.

Source

“Bronze Statue Discovered at Titanic Wreck Site After First Expedition in Many Years.” PBS News. Last modified September 2, 2024. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/bronze-statue-discovered-at-titanic-wreck-site-after-first-expedition-in-many-years.

Suggested Reading

Brewster, H. (2013). Gilded Lives, Fatal Voyage: The Titanic’s First-Class Passengers and Their World. National Geographic Books.

Rossignol, K. (2012). Titanic 1912: The Original News Reporting of the Sinking of the Titanic. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.

Wilson, A. (2012). Shadow of the Titanic: The Extraordinary Stories of Those Who Survived. Simon and Schuster.

Titanic News Channel is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com.

Titanic

Monday Titanic News

I hope everyone has had a pleasant weekend and, if in the United States, enjoyed Labor Day as well. Here are some news stories you might find of interest.

[The recent expedition brought back more stunning and updated images of Titanic.]

Titanic at the docks of Southampton, 10 April 1912
Unknown Author
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Francis, Rebecca Morelle and Alison. “Titanic: Striking Images Reveal Depths of Ship’s Slow Decay.” Last modified September 1, 2024. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crkm82enkgko.

It was the image that made the Titanic’s wreck instantly recognisable – the ship’s bow looming out of the darkness of the Atlantic depths. But a new expedition has revealed the effects of slow decay, with a large section of railing now on the sea floor. The loss of the railing – immortalised by Jack and Rose in the famous movie scene – was discovered during a series of dives by underwater robots this summer. The images they captured show how the wreck is changing after more than 100 years beneath the waves.

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Hartland, Nick. “George Bailey – the Monmouthshire Stoker Who Died Aboard the Titanic.” Abergavenny Chronicle, August 30, 2024. https://www.abergavennychronicle.com/news/george-bailey-the-monmouthshire-stoker-who-died-aboard-the-titanic-716822.

Every community seems to have its own Titanic connection, whether someone on board, a family link or artefact. And Monmouthshire is no different, with Wye Valley fire stoker George Bailey among the approximately 1500 crew members and passengers who tragically perished. According to Encyclopedia Titanica, he was one of nine siblings, born in Newport in 1866 before moving to the Wyeside town as a young child, where he appeared on the 1871 census as living at Clipper Court, St Mary, Monmouth, and on the 1881 census at 2, Red Lion Court, Monmouth.

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The Sad Parting
From Story of the Wreck of the Titanic;Marshall Everett);1912
Artist Unknown
Public Domain

Considine, Pippa. “BBC Orders Stellify Titanic Series.” Televisual. Last modified August 28, 2024. https://www.televisual.com/news/bbc-orders-stellify-titanic-series/.

BBC Factual and BBC Northern Ireland have commissioned a new four-part series from Stellify Media detailing the sinking of the Titanic, with support from Northern Ireland Screen, for BBC Two and iPlayer. Belfast-based Stellify’s Titanic Sinks Tonight (working title) aims to provide a complete picture of the most famous 160 minutes in maritime history, telling the story of the sinking of the Titanic in real time. From the crucial seconds just before the ship hits the iceberg, to the moment the hull sinks beneath the waves, the boxset series pieces together the events, minute by minute, to reveal what happened to the 2240 passengers and crew on 14 and 15 April, 1912.

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Wilson, Natalie. “The Odyssey: Cruise Passengers Spending up to £680,000 on Three-year Trip Stuck in Belfast for Three Months.” The Independent, August 29, 2024. https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/cruise-passengers-belfast-stranded-the-odyssey-ireland-b2603717.html.

Passengers calling a residential cruise ship home have been stranded on the vessel in Northern Ireland for three months after their round-the-world voyage was plagued with delays. Those onboard Villa Vie Residences’ Odyssey have spent their summer docked in Belfast after repair work required to the rudders and gearbox prevented the ocean liner from leaving the cruise terminal. The ship was scheduled to depart the Northern Ireland capital for the first leg of the three-and-a-half-year cruise on 30 May. Its inaugural journey was due to visit all seven continents, with stops at more than 425 ports in 147 countries.

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Croatiaweek, and Croatiaweek. “Tribute to the Ship and Croatian Crew That Saved Titanic Survivors | Croatia Week.” Croatia Week. Last modified August 29, 2024. https://www.croatiaweek.com/tribute-to-the-ship-and-croatian-crew-that-saved-titanic-survivors/.

The exhibition “Carpathia – Pride of the City of Rijeka” was staged in the city’s main street Korzo on Tuesday in tribute to the vessel that was engaged in rescuing passengers who survived the sinking of the RMS Titanic on 15 April 1912. The crew of the RMS Carpathia included 84 Croatian seafarers. The exhibition was organised by an association of sea captains of the northern Adriatic region. The Maritime and History Museum of the Croatian Littoral in Rijeka has a a life vest used by a Titanic survivor. The item was brought to Rijeka by sailor Josip Car, who was a member of the Carpathia crew.

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Speed, Kellie. “$9.5 Million New Hampshire Estate Built By Titanic Survivor Hits the Market for the First Time In 100 Years.” Real Estate News & Insights | Realtor.Com®. Last modified August 27, 2024. https://www.realtor.com/news/unique-homes/new-hampshire-estate-titanic-survivor-rare/.

A stunning lakefront retreat that was built by a survivor of the ill-fated Titanic was just listed for the “titanic” price of $9.5 million—landing on the market for the first time in 100 years. The rare real estate gem on Squam Lake in Moultonborough, NH, was built in 1899 by Richard Beckwith, 13 years before he and his wife, Sallie, boarded the doomed ocean liner as first-class passengers. Accompanied by Sallie’s daughter from a previous marriage, Helen Newsom, the couple were among the 706 passengers who survived the horrifying sinking of the Titanic—with listing agent Jacalyn Dussault, of Dussault Real Estate, explaining that the family’s experiences on the ship actually helped inspire James Cameron’s iconic movie about the incident.

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Suggested Reading

Behe, G. (2012). On board RMS Titanic: Memories of the Maiden Voyage. The History Press.

Brewster, H. (2013). Gilded Lives, Fatal Voyage: The Titanic’s First-Class Passengers and Their World. National Geographic Books.

Eaton John P. & Haas Charles, TITANIC TRIUMPH AND TRAGEDY, SECOND EDITION, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, New York, 1995 First American Edition

Lord, Walter, A NIGHT TO REMEMBER, Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York, New York, 1955. Multiple revisions and reprints, notably Illustrated editions (1976,1977,1978 etc.)

Titanic News Channel is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com.

 

Holidays

Happy Labor Day! (U.S.)

Labor Day Postage Stamp (1956)
United States Post Office
Public Domain

Labor Day is a U.S. federal holiday observed on the first Monday in September. It became a federal holiday in 1894 to celebrate workers and their achievements. It has also become the unofficial end of summer as schools have reopened and summer vacations have ended. As a federal holiday, all federal offices are closed as are banks and the stock market. All states celebrate it as well so state, county, and city offices are closed as well. Nearly all professional offices are closed and most construction workers have the day off as well. Retail and fast food employees do not get the day off except in areas where due to the holiday they get virtually no business.

Come to me, all who labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest. (Matthew 11:28)

Have a nice Labor Day everyone!

Miscellaneous

Welcome to September

September is illustrated by the harvest. Five figures pick grapes while a man and a woman, apparently pregnant, rest. The bunches are placed in baskets which are then emptied into baskets attached to mules. These baskets are themselves poured into vats loaded into carts pulled by oxen. The second plan is entirely occupied by the Château de Saumur in Anjou, a region already producing wine at the time. The towers are topped with fleur-de-lys weathervanes. On its outskirts, a list is represented with its central bar and its trellis wall. (Wikimedia Commons)
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry
Folio 9, verso: September
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (manuscript illustration)
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

September is the ninth month on both the Gregorian and Julian calendars. The name September is derived from Latin word Septem which meant seven. On the old Roman calendar, this would be the seventh month since that calendar began in March. However, in 153 BC the Roman senate adapted a new calendar in which the year started in January and Septem became the ninth month. The Autumnal Equinox takes place between September 22-24 and inaugurating Autumn in the Northern Hemisphere. In the southern, the same equinox heralds Spring.

The Eastern Orthodox Church starts its liturgical year in September (they follow the Julian calendar instead of the Gregorian). The first full moon of September is often called the Harvest Moon since many farmers begin harvesting crops. The United States celebrates Labor Day on the first Monday in September. The Chinese celebrate the Moon Festival (a major holiday second only to Chinese New Year). Lanterns are made, moon cakes eaten, and gifts exchanged.

As the transition to fall begins, fall produce start appearing. For the U.S., generally that will be apples, artichokes, cranberries, edamame, pears, pumpkins and quinces. Pumpkin spiced beverages start appearing, but it seems some retailers jumped the shark early and started serving them in August. Hard to think of autumn in August or early September when the outside temperature might in 90 F (32 C)!

History

Remembering History: Hitler Invades Poland (1939); Japan Surrenders Ending World War II (1945)

Hitler attends a Wehrmacht victory parade in Warsaw on 5 October 1939
Public Domain

On 1 September 1939, German forces using the pretext they were acting in self-defense against Poland, invaded. The German infantry was not fully mechanized but had Panzers and fast-moving artillery that included truck mounted artillery. The German strategy was to quickly concentrate forces and encircle an enemy quickly. Thanks to the relatively flat terrain of Poland, it made it easy to move mobile infantry about. The invasion came one week after the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact on 23 August. This non-aggression pact meant neither side could assist the enemy of the other. A secret protocol to the agreement defined German and Soviet spheres in Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland. This protocol would not be proved until the Nuremberg Trials. So, when Germany invaded, Poland was already split with defined borders between the two countries.

With this pact, Poland signed defense agreements with Britain and France. Talks between those powers and Germany did take place and the invasion was held up until they were concluded. Hitler did not believe they would declare war, and if they did would be willing to compromise after the invasion of Poland. Germany wanted the restoration of Danzig (in Polish Gdansk) as a free city (it had a large German population), the Polish Corridor, and the safeguarding of Germans in Poland. Germany demanded that a Polish representative with the power to sign such an agreement be present.

The British, remembering what happened before when Czechoslovakia was forced to capitulate to the Germans, did not like that demand. When the Polish representative met with Ribbentrop on 31 Aug, he was dismissed when he had no power to sign. The Germans then claimed that Poland had rejected their demands and Hitler ordered the invasion for 1 September. The Germans were better prepared for war than the Polish. They had higher numbers of troops and had air superiority. Poland had older fighters while the bombers were more modern. They waited too late to upgrade so newer fighters and bombers would not be there when the Germany invaded. Poland had two armor brigades and its 7TP light tank was better armed than the German Panzer. But they only had 140 of those and 88 tanks they imported from Britain and France. The Polish Navy was a small fleet with destroyers, submarines and support vessels. Most of the surface vessels escaped and joined the British Royal Navy. Submarines did engage German shipping in the Baltic Sea but it was not successful. Polish merchant ships that did escape or elsewhere would join the allies and take part in wartime convoys.

By 3 October both German and Soviet forces had secured their spheres ending the Second Polish Republic. Both German and Soviet governments quickly took control of their territories, organizing and annexing, and setting up regional controls. Government and military leaders who did escape would form a military force in support of the Polish government-in-exile. In response to the invasion of Poland, Britain and France formally declared war on Germany on 3 September but little else (France did invade the Saar but quickly withdrew).

Sources

Gilbert, Adrian. “Invasion of Poland (1939) | Description & Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified August 25, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/event/Invasion-of-Poland.

“Invasion of Poland, Fall 1939.” https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/invasion-of-poland-fall-1939.

———. “Germany Invades Poland.” HISTORY, August 30, 2024. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/germany-invades-poland.

Japan Surrenders

Surrender of Japan, Tokyo Bay, 2 September 1945: Representatives of the Empire of Japan on board USS Missouri (BB-63) during the surrender ceremonies.
Army Signal Corps, Public Domain

On the battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay, the Japanese formally surrendered ending World War II. By this time Japan was no longer the military power it once was. The Battle of Midway in June 1942 had been the turning point when four Japanese aircraft carriers were sunk. Since then Japanese control over its captured territories were pushed back under massive effort of U.S. and Allied forces. By the summer of 1945, and with the capture of Okinawa, Japan was being blockaded and being bombed often. Plans for the invasion of Japan had been drawn up. After the bloody experience of capturing territory such as on Iwa Jima, it was expected to be a difficult invasion that would cost a lot of allied lives. However, the dropping of two atomic weapons on Japan in August on Hiroshima and Nagasaki changed things dramatically. Members of the Japanese War Council and Emperor Hirohito favored accepting the peace terms; some objected and acted to stop a surrender. On 15 Aug a coup was attempted against Prime Minister Suzuki, but it was crushed. At noon that day, and for the first time in Japanese history, Emperor Hirohito addressed the nation by radio. “We have resolved to pave the way for a grand peace for all the generations to come by enduring the unendurable and suffering what is insufferable.” The US and the allies accepted the surrender.

Sources

———. “Japan Surrenders, Bringing an End to WWII.” HISTORY, August 30, 2024. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/japan-surrenders.

———. “Pacific War | Summary, Battles, Maps, & Casualties.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified August 18, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pacific-War/The-Japanese-surrender.

Malloryk. “‘to Bear the Unbearable’: Japan’s Surrender, Part I.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. Last modified August 17, 2020. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/japans-surrender-part-i.

 

 

History

American Dunkirk (29-30 August 1776)

U.S. Army-Artillery retreat from Long Island-1776
Creator: Werner Company, 1899 (Akron, Ohio)
U.S. Library of Congress, digital id#cph 3g03362 //hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3g03362

New York had a pivotal role in the American colonies and the American Revolution. Its central position made it vital to commerce and communication with the north and south colonies. This made it a key strategic location for both the British and American forces. General George Washington knew the British would target New York City, so he transferred the Continental Army to the city to turn back or slow down the British forces that would come. Fortifications were established in stages. Many of Washington’s troops were green, never been far from home, nor served in the military before. Washington split his forces between Brooklyn and Manhattan. This made reinforcement difficult and left a hole open at the Jamaica Pass the British would exploit.

When the British fleet arrived in June, it brought 20,000 British infantry that disembarked on Staten Island. The warships also could dominate the waterways that cut through New York City. The British sent 10,000 soldiers to Long Island, but Washington did not recombine his forces to counter it. Using a distraction, British General William Howe marched into position and on 27 August launch the attack on the Americans. Fighting raged on Guan Heights in the south and at Brooklyn Heights in the north, with the bloodiest fighting at Battle Pass where hand to hand fighting between Americans and Hessian mercenaries took place. The Americans are forced to withdraw to Brooklyn Heights. A countercharge led by 400 Marylanders would allow their comrades to escape. They would later be remembered as the Maryland 400 for their bravery. When the sun went down, the British had defeated the Americans but held off further attacks until the next day.

General Washington’s options were to surrender or evacuate at this point. While the battle had been lost, the spirit of the revolution was not dimmed. He ordered an evacuation of the troops at night, with British forces not that far away. By all accounts he was calm, authoritative, and in control of the situation. And he was aided in this task by a unique group of individuals called the Marbleheaders. They had worked together as a team fishing in the icy waters of the North Atlantic. So, they understood the weather, tides and time when sailing. Under the leadership of Colonel John Glover, this group using any sailing or rowing vessel they could find, worked to move Washington’s army across the East River to safety. It was no mean feat with British forces all around them. Oars were covered in cloth to prevent making noise in the water, everyone was told to stay quiet and not cough. They used minimal lighting and did not tell the soldiers what was going on until the last minute (this was to prevent the British from finding out).

They moved all the horses, ammunition, and cannon first. Then all the injured and wounded were transported. And then the evacuation began at 10 pm of the troops. Both the tide and winds were in their favor and the water was calm. When the tide changed, it became more difficult to keep the boats from going off-course on the return trips. The Marbleheaders had to really work hard to not loose control of their vessels. Around midnight, the winds shifted making the use of sloops (which used sails rather than oars) possible. Some chaos began to erupt at the embarkation point as soldiers started to rush to the boats. Washington seeing men trying to fight for a place on the boats, threatened to sink the ship unless the men who had pushed others aside got out. This restored the calm and shows how the proper use of leadership in such exacting times can work. The evacuation took all night and was still not done by the morning on 30 August. They had accomplished an impossible task of transporting thousands of men in just nine hours. Dawn though saw Americans still manning the trenches and it spelled doom for them when the British attacked.

Then quite suddenly a thick fog appeared and cloaked the escape. Those escaping in the early morning commented on how smooth the water was. The fog came at exactly the right time and place to remove the remaining American troops to safety across the East River. Washington oversaw the retreat and encouraged his men staying ashore until the last boat was being loaded. At that point he boarded and headed across the river. Thanks to the fog, and the lack of any alarm received by the British, Washington was able to evacuate his entire army leaving the British to find them gone.

While the British defeated Americans at the Battle of Brooklyn Heights (and would hold New York till 1783), the remarkable escape of Washington’s troops would be well regarded both for the incredible evacuation and the leadership of Washington himself.  Far from dispiriting the troops or the cause, it became a source of great inspiration, and many believe the hand of God was involved as well. The fame of the Marbleheaders in being able to make the crossing possible would spread. More importantly confidence in George Washington as a capable military leader would result. He made a mistake in dividing his forces, but his remarkable leadership to save his troops would show he was a military leader both the people and his troops could rely on.

Sources

The American Revolution – (The Battle of Long Island (Brooklyn Heights)). (n.d.). http://theamericanrevolution.org/battledetail.aspx?battle=8

Brooklyn. (n.d.). American Battlefield Trust. https://www.battlefields.org/learn/revolutionary-war/battles/brooklyn

Battle of Brooklyn – The Old Stone House in Brooklyn. (2024, February 16). The Old Stone House in Brooklyn. https://theoldstonehouse.org/history/battle-of-brooklyn/

Suggested Reading

O’Donnell, P. K. (2017b). Washington’s Immortals: The Untold Story of an Elite Regiment Who Changed The Course Of The Revolution. Grove Press. This book does something rare and takes you back to those days with a skill and acumen few writers have. This is not a dry recitation of history, but an exploration of all the factors and people who played a role in the revolution that unfolded. It blends neatly stories about the many individuals, why they choose to revolt, military history of the battle, and very interesting details of a small band of hardy sailors that knew the waters well to give Washington the key to escape from New York. A must read if you want to delve into the people and their motivations for their desire to revolt. And a lot of military details skillfully intertwined so you never get bogged down.

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History

Forgotten (Almost) History: Eruption of Mount Vesuvius Buries Pompeii and kills thousands (24 Aug 79 AD)

[This has been revised from previous version adding new information, correcting grammar and punctuation, and new source information.]

Vesuvius from Portici by Joseph Wright of Derby(1734–1797)
Image:Public Domain

It was just around noon on 24 August 79 AD when Mount Vesuvius erupted with a massive 10-mile mushroom cloud sent into the stratosphere. It would become one of the deadliest volcanic eruptions in history. Ash and pumice would rain down over the entire area for twelve hours. Those who fled early on were able to survive what came next. A pyroclastic flow-a fast moving of hot gas mixed with volcanic matter-would sweep down from the mountain engulfing the area and killing everyone still there. The eruption was so massive and so powerful that geologists use the term Vesuvian to describe similar deadly eruptions of its kind.

The Bay of Naples was during this period of time known for its trade and luxury. Foods and other commodities were constantly being shipped in and out allowing the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum to have a high standard of living. The resort city of Stabiae was the place many went to relax in. Mount Vesuvius stood majestically above it all and no one considered the mountain could one day be a problem. There were no records of any eruptions during Roman history. There was an eruption during the Bronze Age that decimated settlements and even more violent eruptions in the far past. During the Roman period and the prior periods when the Greeks and others had settled in the areas, there were no eruptions. Stromboli was known to them and had been actively erupting long before the Romans. Stromboli erupts near its crater and, in most cases, causes no damage. So, Romans had no experience with volcanic eruptions like what happened in 79 AD.

There had been earthquakes that had occurred prior to the eruption. Excavations have determined they were in the process of repairing streets and underground plumbing damaged by them. However, they had no idea the tremors related to the nearby mountain. Indeed, they were caught by surprise when around 1 pm on 23 August  when Vesuvius began erupting and spewing forth hot ash and pumice which began to rain down on the area. People close to the volcano began to flee and others, nervous about the situation, did as well. It is estimated about 20,000 people lived in both Pompeii and Herculaneum. As the hours went on, people could see what looked like fires on the mountain causing many more to likely flee. Pyroclastic flows started coming down near the mountain and then later consume settlements near them. The flows took down everything in their paths and killed everyone that was there. Ash and pumice continued to fall adding more problems for breathing and started damaging structures. Other earthquakes added damage and there was a minor tsunami in the Bay of Naples.

It was on the second day that Vesuvius would erupt so massively that it would give the name to such violent eruptions. The massive 10-mile mushroom cloud released 1,000 times more than the nuclear devices used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The massive amounts of ash and pumice ejected was about 1.5 million tons per second. The pyroclastic flows it generated on the second day swept through Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, and Stabiae killing anyone who had not fled with the ash and pumice burying them completely.  The only surviving account as to what happened comes from the writings of Pliny the Younger who witnessed the eruption while staying west across the Bay of Naples. His uncle, Pliny the Elder, sailed over to Stabiae to find out what was going on. They had planned to stay the night, but the ash and pumice had made the houses unstable and decided to leave. Unfortunately, a plume of toxic gases came over the area and they had to flee. Pliny though was unable to escape and would die. They would find his body three days later exactly where he fell with no other injuries. Pliny the Younger would compile survivor accounts and his own observations. He provided them to Tacitus, who included it his writings.

The reaction of the Roman people was utter disbelief. No one had any inkling that Mount Vesuvius was deadly. And at least 20,000 people were believed dead. Many wealthy Romans and senators had residences there. It was a major loss for the Romans. Rome declared a mourning period, though its exact length is unknown but perhaps up to a year. Depictions from that time show Romans wearing dark robes to signify the mourning. The new Emperor Titus sent two consuls to Pompeii the set up any assistance that was needed. He ordered the treasury to aid the Compania region and rebuild Pompeii. Property was given to survivors whose relatives owned them prior to their deaths. And the people of Pompeii would be free from taxes for the next five years. However, due to the totality of the destruction, most gathered what possessions they could access and resettled elsewhere. The amount of ash that covered the cities was substantial, so they were abandoned. Thieves burrowed in the ash to locate valuables. And the city was used as a quarry with all the ash. Additionally marble and stone blocks were removed for other building projects along with other items.

“The Civita hill, which was covered in eruptive material, from which parts of the upper floors of buildings emerged, became an uninhabited site, though one where man returned to cultivate, and use the area as a burial ground. In certain cases, the structures which emerged were re-used for other purposes, such as in the case of the bakery which was constructed in a vaulted room which faces onto the southern crag of the plain, or the structures which were built over the Women’s Forum Baths. Along the restored road outside the city, several buried structures were also unearthed and repurposed. The most significant case is that of the Moregine baths, which were discovered during the construction of the Naples-Salerno motorway on the southern outskirts of modern Pompei: the building had been partly reused, with the laying of a clay slab floor over the ash layer from the eruption of AD 79, until another eruption buried it, causing the permanent abandonment of the complex.” (Parco archeologico di Pompei, 2018b)

Pompeii, with Vesuvius towering above.(2010)
Author: Qfl247 (Wikimedia Commons)

Significant excavations beginning in 1927 on have revealed much of what life must have been like before the destruction. More somber were the finding of some 2,000 bodies. Volcanic ash hardened and preserved the outlines of their bodies. Once the flesh had gone, the outline remained but filled in with plaster revealed those final moments of their lives. And it was not pleasant at all.

Vesuvius is still an active volcano. Its last major eruption was in March 1944 and destroyed several small villages with lava. The eruption was seen from Naples and damaged (thanks to hot ash and other things) or destroyed up to 88 B-25 medium bombers based in Terzigno, Italy. The volcano is kept under constant watch to prevent anything on the scale of the eruption of 79 AD to the people who live under its shadow.

Sources

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2024i, August 17). Vesuvius | Facts, Location, & Eruptions. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Vesuvius

Daley, J. (2018, October 10). Mount Vesuvius Boiled Its Victims’ Blood and Caused Their Skulls to Explode. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/mount-vesuvius-boiled-its-victims-blood-and-caused-their-skulls-explode-180970504/

 Mount Vesuvius, Italy: Map, facts, eruption Pictures, Pompeii. (n.d.). https://geology.com/volcanoes/vesuvius/

Nick. (2022, December 14). The Roman Empire’s Reaction To Pompeii. The History Ace. https://thehistoryace.com/the-roman-empires-reaction-to-pompeii/

Parco archeologico di Pompei. (2018b, December 17). Pompeii after the Eruption – Pompeii Sites. Pompeii Sites. https://pompeiisites.org/en/pompeii-map/analysis/pompeii-after-the-eruption/

Roos, D., & Roos, D. (2024, July 17). A volcanic eruption wasn’t the only disaster that destroyed Pompeii. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/news/pompeii-eruption-volcano-earthquakes

Sullivan, M. (2024h, August 23). Mount Vesuvius erupts. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/vesuvius-erupts

 

Suggested Reading

Books

Beard, M. (2010). The Fires of Vesuvius: Pompeii Lost and Found. Harvard University Press.

De Carolis, E., & Patricelli, G. (2003). Vesuvius, A.D. 79: The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Getty Publications.

Ashen Sky: The Letters of Pliny the Younger on the Eruption of Vesuvius. (2007). Getty Publications.

Documentaries

In The Shadow Of Vesuvius. (2010, December 8). National Geographic.

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