Photograph of painting depicting Franklin’s famous kite and key experiment. Circa 1911. Artist: Charles E. Mills (American, 1856-1956) U.S. Library of Congress, Digital Id#cph 3b42841
On 10 June 1752 Benjamin Franklin conducted his famous–and legendary–experiment on electricity during a thunderstorm. He was not trying to discover electricity but determine the connection between lightning and static electricity
Franklin constructed a kite with a wire at the top to act as a lightning rod. The kite’s bottom used hemp string that once wetted with rain would become a conductor for an electrical charge. And with a silk string attached, he stood in the doorway of the shed as the thunderstorm approached. His son William helped him get the kite airborne. For a while nothing seemed to happen and he was ready to give up when he noticed several loose strands of hemp were erect. As he moved his finger near the key he had attached, he felt electricity. Using a Leyden jar, the static electricity was collected to be discharged later.
He reported his experiment in the Pennsylvania Gazette (19 October 1752) documenting what he had learned of the connection between lightning and static electricity. Up to this point in time, it was thought electricity consisted of two opposite forces. Franklin determined it was instead a common element and fluid leading to the single fluid theory. Simply put, when you charge something (like a car battery or something similar), you have a positive charge (+) that flows to the negative (-). Franklin created new language that we still use today to describe how this force is used:
Battery
Charge
Condenser
Conductor
Plus
Minus
A similar experiment had been conducted in France by Thomas-François Dalibard a year earlier. A year later Georg Wilhelm Richmann attempted the same thing in St. Petersburg. The outcome though was tragic: he was struck by ball lightning and died. Ball lightning is rare and scientists to this day are baffled by its properties. Franklin developed the lightning rod because of this experiment. This device allows lightning to pass harmlessly through the rod and cables into the ground avoiding any conductive material. Houses and buildings could be protected from lightning strikes. From there it would be used on ships and much later installed on airplanes to protect them as well. Franklin received the Copley Award from the Royal Society for his experiments.
Over the years his experiment got mixed up and rewritten becoming a myth. Instead of standing in the shed, he was outside and the kite was struck by lightning. Except that never happened yet it was taught in schools as fact for quite a long time. Mythbusters took on the myth and showed if Franklin had done it as the myth said he did, he would have been killed. They did prove that his real experiment was valid as they flew a kite on a sunny day and got static electricity.
Pre-1692 Port Royal Illustration Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
According to the Greek philosopher Plato, Atlantis was sunk as retribution by the gods. Today most historians and archaeologists consider Atlantis a myth (but likely based on the actual demise of the island of Thera and resultant decline of the Minoans), but the sinking of Port Royal into the Caribbean Sea is true.
Port Royal was founded in 1494 in southeast Jamaica on the peninsula of what was later called Kingston Harbor. The Spanish did not think it important at the time, but the island was strategic due its location to a major trade route. Sugar cane was the important crop and the island remained under Spanish control until the British seized the island in 1655. The British would build extensively in Port Royal (originally called Cagway) adding houses, shops, warehouses, and two forts. It became the unofficial capitol of Jamaica (Spanish Town was the capital until Kingston). Port Royal, due to its location on the Spanish Main, would become the home of privateers. Back then since most navies were small, governments would commission ship captains to wage war on their enemies at sea. Privateers, armed with the Letters of Marque that authorized them to act for the crown, allowed them to attack a country’s enemies on the seas. Privateers could seize ships and their cargoes to be sold for profit. The difference between a pirate and a privateer was simple. A pirate operated without a Letter of Marque and was a menace to all subject to death when caught.
Port Royal became a wealthy city due to the privateering and one of the largest cities in the Caribbean with over 6,500 people at its height. Its reputation as both gaudy for its display of wealth, and for its loose morals, made it one of the most notorious cities in the world at the time. Privateers would spend money in taverns (there was one for every ten people), gambling, and prostitution. Merchants of all kinds also dipped into the privateer purse by selling all kinds of products to them. The city ran out of room, so they built a landfill. While there was some advice to use wood, many choose instead to build with brick not realizing they were building on sand and not bedrock. By 1692 the need for privateers had ebbed. When the British signed the Treaty of Madrid in 1670, it ended their need to raid Spanish ships and cities. The famous privateer of the era, Henry Morgan, ended up serving in the Jamaican government and even being governor at times. Privateers could still use Port Royal, but they had to be careful to never attack British ships if they had a Letter of Marque from another power. The French still issued them in their war against Spain, though tensions between Britain and France were often difficult as well.
Pirates also had emerged as a new threat as they attacked everyone. Anti-piracy laws were soon enacted, and Port Royal was no haven for them. They would be shot at if they approached, their ships seized, and its captain and crew faced death or imprisonment. Port Royal, which had grown wealthy off the privateers, now wanted to end its bad reputation as a city for extreme drunkenness, debauchery, and illicit wealth. But on 7 June 1692, a series of three earthquakes hit starting at 11:43 a.m. All of Jamaica was shaken violently but the worst was at Port Royal. Buildings on the landfill or over water collapsed and sank. Then the tsunami arrived, putting half of the city under water. Spanish Town was completely destroyed and landslides inland claimed lives.
An estimated 3,000 people died from the earthquakes, tsunami, and landslides. Many died later from looters, injuries, and diseases. Small parts of the city did survive and attempts to rebuild were unsuccessful. As news spread that the wicked city was gone, many cheered its demise. Kingston became the new center of commerce and trade from that point on. Today it is known as the city that sank and a world heritage site. Tourists now visit the site and scientists of all kinds still study what happened. Liquefaction is one of the culprits of its demise, something that now explains how some cities built were destroyed in ancient times such as Helike in Greece or Thonis-Heracleion in Egypt.
Map showing shoreline changes caused by the 1692 Port Royal earthquake Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Vallar, Cindy. “Pirates & Privateers: The History of Maritime Piracy – Pirate Havens Port Royal.” Accessed June 8, 2026. http://www.cindyvallar.com/havens4.html.
Documentaries & Films
The History Guy: History Deserves to Be Remembered. “Pirates and the Earthquake That Destroyed Port Royal.” Video. YouTube, June 7, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EypOHCv2JsY.
National Geographic Wild. “Best Documentary History of Port Royal Underwater Cities.” YouTube, 22 Jan. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=B1VLUevIWIs.
Midway Atoll, 24 November 1941 Public Domain (Official U.S. Navy photo)
Background
June 1942 saw the Empire of Japan dominate in Asia ruling a sizable empire. It began in the late 19th century when it seized Formosa (Taiwan) in 1895. The conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War (1905-1905) saw it acquire Korea. It would take Manchuria (renamed Manchukuo) in 1931. China was invaded in 1937 and seized the key cities of Shanghai, Nanking, and Peking. When France fell to Germany in 1940, Japan invaded to prevent it being used to supply China. Vichy France made a deal with Japan to keep it neutral but allow it within their sphere of power. Japan attacked and conquered Hong Kong after heavy fighting on Christmas Day 1941. Fortress Singapore, so named because of its impressive frontal defense, was defeated when the Japanese army came from the lightly defended rear (what was believed to be an impassable jungle) and conquered it on 15 Feb 1942. The Dutch East Indies (Indonesia today) were conquered by March 1942 and The Philippines in May. Japan, supported by local independence groups, also invaded Burma in 1941 and would finish in April 1942. Japan would use Burma to attack British held India. The Japanese began attacking northern Australia to prevent it from being used as a staging area.
Japan had succeeded in tossing out the imperial powers and absorbing them into its own empire. The only major power they were concerned with was the United States and the attack on 7 December 1941 had destroyed many of their battleships. Considered a success by the Japanese, they had hoped it would force the Americans to stay out of the conflict. However, the U.S. desire to fight back surprised them. The Doolittle Raid of 18 April 1942 where American bombers bombed Tokyo (they flew off aircraft carriers to accomplish this) stunned the Japanese government. And the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942 made them realize they had to defeat the American fleet. They decided to draw out the American fleet for a battle near Midway Island for a decisive battle. They saw themselves as the masters of the Pacific; the Battle of Midway would change that forever.
The Broken Japanese Code
A special naval intelligence unit called HYPO had broken it in March resulting in much of the plan becoming known to the U.S. They learned that the attack in Alaska was a feint to draw naval forces away from being used at Midway. They also learned that behind the Japanese carrier strike force was a large destroyer force sailing to meet them and deliver a decisive blow to any remaining U.S. ships after the attack on Midway. The American task force assembled were three aircraft carriers– Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown – seven heavy cruisers, 1 light cruiser, 15 destroyers, and 16 submarines. The Yorktown had to be quickly patched up after its recent encounter with the Japanese and needed some new aircraft and pilots. Admiral William Halsey was put in charge but due to illness had to be replaced by Rear Admiral Raymond Spruance. Spruance would command the Enterprise and Hornet along with her support vessels. Rear Admiral Frank Fletcher was in command of Yorktown.
The Japanese committed four carriers, 2 battleships, 2 heavy cruisers and 1 light cruiser, 12 destroyers, 13 submarines, and 16 floatplanes. Their support force were 4 heavy cruisers, 2 destroyers, and 12 floatplanes. The U.S. had 233 carrier-based aircraft to the Japanese 248. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, who had planned the attack on Pearl Harbor, designed the complex Midway battle. Part of his plan involved dispersing his forces so that they would not be readily seen by the Americans. He also believed he would be facing only two carriers, the Enterprise and Hornet, because th?e Yorktown had been badly damaged at the Battle of Coral Sea. However, the Americans had learned most of the plan from the decoded transmissions. And the planned dispersal proved more difficult as it required the support ships to keep up with them, which proved to be more difficult than originally thought.
The Battle
On 4 June 1942, Admiral Nagumo aboard the carrier Akagi launched the initial air attack on Midway composed of dive and torpedo bombers escorted by Zeroes. PBYs launched that morning from Midway would sight two Japanese carriers and radar picked up incoming Japanese fighters. Midway sent up unescorted bombers to delay the attack while the fighters remained behind to defend Midway. Midway came under heavy attack and its air interceptors took a heavy beating fighting the Japanese. Anti-aircraft fire from ground personnel proved to be more precise. Midway took a beating but was still functional and could launch planes.
Meanwhile scouting reports flying ahead of the American carriers placed the Japanese carriers at the extreme range for air attack. Making matters more difficult was the fact that Japanese scout planes had sighted the American fleet. Despite the extreme range, Spruance ordered the planes to be launched and increased the speed of the task force to close the distance. The torpedo squadrons left first but due to mechanical problems in launching the dive-bombers, had to fly unescorted. They would reach the Japanese and be quickly shot out of the sky by Japanese Zeroes and anti-aircraft fire. Not one torpedo launched did any serious damage.
The pilots of the U.S. Navy Torpedo Squadron 8 (VT-8) aboard the aircraft carrier USS Hornet (CV-8), circa mid-May 1942, shortly before battle of Midway. They flew unescorted by fighters to attack the Japanese aircraft carriers. The slow moving planes were no match for the fast Zeroes that attacked them. Not one torpedo they launched did any damage. However because of their bravery, the Zeroes were out of position when the American dive-bombers arrived allowing them to bomb the Japanese carriers. Ensign George Gay was the only survivor. Photo: May 1942 Source: Naval History and Heritage Command, digital ID NH 93595 Public Domain
Admiral Nagumo had a problem. His planes returned from Midway and were being re-armed for the next bombing run. But he had just gotten a report that the American navy was in the area. Its exact composition was unknown. So, he ordered a change in the ordnance for the attack planes. Instead of attacking land-based targets they would arm to destroy ships. The result was there a lot of ordnance out on the deck on the carriers where this was being done. With the Japanese combat air patrol out of position having dealt with the torpedo squadrons they were not able to intercept the next wave of attack. American dive-bomber squadrons from Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown would seemingly arrive nearly at the same time. It was one of the greatest coincidences in military history. Three Japanese carriers–Akagi, Kaga, and Soryu–would be sunk that day. The surviving carrier Hiryu counter-attacked by sending our air squadrons to attack any American carrier they could find. They found Yorktown and dropped three bombs heavily damaging the ship but not sinking it. Admiral Fletcher moved over to cruiser Astoria while it was being repaired. A second air attack an hour later would further damage Yorktown. She would later sink when being towed on 6 June by a torpedo fired by a Japanese submarine, which also sank the destroyer Hamman.
The Japanese believed they had turned the tide and would be able to go on with the Midway plan. They knew a huge fleet of destroyers and support craft was on the way. However, the Hiryu was found late in the afternoon. An air attack by Enterprise and Yorktown bombers resulted in four or possibly five bombs seriously crippling her. The fires prevented any planes taking off or landing. The crew would evacuate and later Hiryu would sink. Spruance, not wanting to risk exposure to Japanese forces and wanting to protect Midway, would retire to the west. Admiral Yamamoto still wanted to invade Midway and proceeded on course. Had Spruance not changed course, the remaining two carriers of the American fleet would have been exposed to Yamamoto’s destroyers. Spruance would go after the stragglers. Yamamoto ultimately ordered the fleet back to Japan not knowing the full composition of the American forces that might be pursuing.
The U.S. Navy lost 1 carrier, 1 destroyer, 150 aircraft and 307 killed. Many of those killed were from the torpedo squadrons that lost 80% or more of their pilots. The Japanese lost 4 carriers, 1 heavy cruiser, 248 aircraft and 3,057 killed. It was a major victory for the U.S., but most Japanese would never learn the full details until after the war was over. The survivors of the sunken carriers and those aboard the ships that survived would be quarantined or sent on duty assignments far away from home. None of the senior officers would face any serious repercussions. Only those at the very top were informed as to what really happened. Only the Emperor and the top naval officers knew the full details. The public was told it was a great victory, and the Imperial Japanese Army believed the navy was in good condition. However, Admiral Yamamoto and the other senior leaders of the Japanese Navy knew the truth. The United States would soon come out stronger than it had been before the attack on Pearl Harbor.
For the United States it would prove the value of intelligence gathering and codebreaking. It would continue to be an important part of the war effort and would yield even more useful information down the road with dire consequences for Admiral Yamamoto. The code breaking led directly to his plane being shot down in 1943 as payback for Pearl Harbor.
(Please note this is a very condensed description of the Battle of Midway and had a lot more stages in it than reflected in this writing).
The Federal File. “Destination Point Luck Voices From Midway – Battle of Midway WWII Documentary.” Video. YouTube, April 24, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vqpk4Rmfbm8.
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“Midway Is East.” Archive.org, 1952, archive.org/details/VAS_04_Midway_Is_East. This is episode 4 from the excellent Victory at Sea series which was shown in 1952-1953. Using archived footage along with excellent music, the series conveyed the scope of naval warfare in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Watch the entire series if you can.
“The Battle of Midway (Short 1942) ? 6.1 | Documentary, Short, War.” IMDb, 14 Sept. 1942, www.imdb.com/title/tt0034498. This is a documentary made in 1942 right after the battle with John Ford directing. It uses actual footage and uses actors to voice over parts of accounts of the sailors and aviators that participated. It is available (f0r free) from some streaming services like Tubi. You can also view it on YouTube (the version linked here is the colorized version, not the original Black & White).
The Federal File. “Destination Point Luck Voices From Midway – Battle of Midway WWII Documentary.” YouTube, 24 Apr. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vqpk4Rmfbm8.
Midway. Directed by Jack Smight, The Mirisch Corporation, Universal Pictures, 1976. This 1976 movie starring Charlton Heston uses old stock footage and pushes the real historical figures in the background while pushing a fictional story line. While entertaining, many will find it lacking in a lot of real historical depth. The subplot involving Heston’s son in the movie makes it more of a soap opera at times. Worth watching to see some great actors but not so much if you are looking for something that will relate the real story of the battle.
Midway. Directed by Roland Emmerich, Summit Entertainment and others, 2019. This 2019 version significantly was better in terms of better effects and depicting events leading up and the Battle of Midway itself. Most of the characters are based on historical ones. Reviews were mixed on this one. Some thought it was a decent movie, but the story itself was not compelling. Rotten Tomatoes has it as 42% like it and IMDB users rate it as 6.7. It is certainly more historically accurate and shows the Japanese side (with actual Japanese actors speaking Japanese).
June calendar from the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry From Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry Folio 6, verso: June Between 1412 and 1416, circa 1440 or between 1485 and 1486 Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
June is the 6th month and one of four months with only 30 days. June is named for the Roman goddess Juno. Juno was high on the pantheon of Roman gods; one of three original gods of Rome. She was the goddess of marriage, fidelity, childbirth, and youth. She was similar but also different in certain aspects than her Greek counterpart Hera. June heralds the start of summer with the Summer Solstice in the Northern Hemisphere (and the Winter Solstice in the Southern Hemisphere). Days are longer and warmer making it good for growing crops and for kids, long days of play now that school is out.
Midsummer is celebrated near the Summer Solstice (21-22) or on St. John’s Day on 24 June in Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Father’s Day is celebrated globally but on different days (the U.S. on the 3rd Sunday in June). Juneteenth, a U.S. federal holiday to celebrate the reading of Emancipation Proclamation read in Galveston, Texas, freeing enslaved people on 19 June.
Midsummer bonfire in Norway, 23 June 2014 Photo: Kora27 via Wikimedia Commons
June is a popular month for marriages and festivities, continuing a tradition that comes from the Romans who thought marrying in June was lucky. While summer does not begin astronomically until the solstice, meteorologists use June 1 as the start of the season. The U.S. Hurricane Season also begins on June 1st as well. The birthstones are pearl, alexandrite, and moonstone, with rose and honeysuckle as the flowers.
Admiral Togo on the bridge of the Battleship Mikasa. Tojo Shotaro (1865–1929) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
On 27 May 1905, the Russian Baltic fleet engaged the Japanese navy at Tsushima Strait, which lies between Korea and Japan. The battle was a decisive win for the Japanese with the Russians losing 34 ships. It shifted the balance of power in Asia for years to come.
Background
The Russia-Japan War of 1904-1905 was the first major war of the 20th century. Russia was large territorially but due to harsh winters needed a warm water port for its navy to operate. They expanded into both China and Korea to acquire resources and establish a naval base at Port Arthur (Lüshunkou District today) in Liaodong Peninsula in China. Japan was not happy with Russia expanding into these areas and that it had supported the Chinese during the 1894 conflict. Japan tried to work out a deal to allow Russia access to Korea under Japanese control. The Russians did not agree, and Japan decided to attack Russia. Since international law at the time did not require a declaration of war prior to an attack, they delivered notice on the very day of the attack to the Russians.
Japan had quickly modernized and westernized once it opened for trade. The arrival of Commodore Perry in 1853 put pressure on Japan to open to the world. It was still ruled by Tokugawa shogunate (military rule) which had begun in the 1600’s. Foreigners were not allowed though a Dutch trading post was allowed owing to a special connection created by William Adams. He was an English navigator for the Dutch fleet that sailed to Japan. Williams became an advisor to the shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu and stayed in Japan for the remainder of his life. He was the basis for the fictional John Blackthorne in the novel Shogun. He did become samurai, a rare honor for a foreigner and Hatamoto.
By the mid-19th century though the shogunate was showing its age. While it controlled contact with foreigners, many had been exposed to Western technology and ideas. Internally things were starting to come apart. A series of famines led to unrest and the belief the shogunate was unable to cope. Also, the fact they were bullied by other nations (particularly the United States) to open their borders for trade led to the fall of the shogunate in 1867. This led to a period called the Meji Restoration where power was restored to the throne. It brought about an end to the feudal system and a cabinet style of government. Trade with the ?West ramped up along with the desire to create a military that would not only defend them but make them a power as well.
The surprise attack on 8 February 1904 shocked the world. The Russian military did not believe Japan would attack, and if it did would be easily repelled. Under the command of Admiral Togo Heihachiro, the Japanese fleet sank ships and bombarded the city. While Russian ships further in the bay were protected, the Japanese bombarded the city and attempted to blockade (this proved difficult). However, the Japanese did not give up and ultimately kept pounding the city for months preventing any military aid (from land or sea) to aid the Russians. The city would surrender formally in January 1905 when General Anatoly Stessel surrendered to the Japanese seeing it was no longer worth defending (it surprised his superiors in St. Petersburg). His surrender was controversial as he still had large stores of ammunition available to him. He would be court martialed later for cowardice and sentenced to death (later changed to 10 years imprisonment). He would be pardoned later by Czar Nicholas II.
Believing the Russian navy could still defeat the Japanese, the Czar created the Third Pacific Fleet and joining with the Second Fleet would become the Baltic Fleet that would sail 18,000 miles from Kronstadt (St. Petersburg) to meet the Japanese at Tsushima Strait. Admiral Togo had plenty of time to prepare to meet the Baltic fleet. Togo had already wiped out the Russian fleet at Port Arthur. A naval squadron from Vladivostok had proven its effectiveness by sinking Japanese transports. However, in August 1904 a confrontation with Japanese forces resulted in the sinking of one heavy armored cruiser. The other two ships had been severely damaged and had to return to port unable to fight again for a long while. During the interim, Togo sent many of his ships back to their home ports for repairs. And he spent time training the crews for the upcoming battle.
This meant the Russians were facing well rested and trained crews, along with ships that had been repaired and ready for battle. Togo’s plan was to trap the Baltic fleet in the Tsushima Strait and to engage them in several operations. On the Russian side, Admiral Rojestvensky and his staff argued on the best course to attack the Japanese. Ultimately, he decided on Tsushima on May 17 and ordered the fleet to proceed. Togo had built watchtowers all over the area and manned to watch for the Russian arrival. Over 70 ships, many converted commercial vessels, were sent out to watch and report on any Russian movement. Early on the morning of 27 May, confirmation was finally made of the Russian fleet and that it was headed for Tsushima Strait.
The battle would last for two days and was decisive. Of the 38 Russian ships that were in battle, 34 were sunk or captured (some were interned in neutral ports). One transport and two destroyers managed to get to Vladivostok; one cruiser managed to get all the way back to Kronstadt. Togo lost three torpedo boats, but the Russian Pacific fleet had been destroyed. It is considered one of the greatest naval victories in modern history.
Russian Cruiser Aurora survived the Battle of Tsushima and sailed to Manila. There it was interned by the United States and later returned to Russia. It had a pivotal role in the October Revolution that brought the Communists to power in Russia. It served as a training ship in World War II and has been a museum ship since 1957. It had to be extensively rebuilt due to serious deterioration. It was recommissioned in 2013 as the flagship of the Russian Navy and is docked in Saint Petersburg. Photo: Nikoniko962 via Wikimedia Commons
Aftermath
The destruction of the Russian Baltic Fleet astonished and shocked Europe and America. Japan now was a major force in Asia to be reckoned with. President Theodore Roosevelt of the United States negotiated a peace treaty between the two in August 1905 (Treaty of Portsmouth). The balance of power in Asia was a central issue since the war involved (directly and indirectly) China, Korea, Europe, and the United States. Russia would give up its claims in Korea and China and recognize Japan as the dominant power in Korea. The colonial powers in Asia were now on notice. Japan was now in the game, and you ignored it at your peril.
After both Russia and Japan agreed to discuss peace terms, President Theodore Roosevelt chose Portsmouth, New Hampshire as its location. It was chosen for its cooler temperature in August as Washington D.C would normally be sweltering. The delegations met on from Aug 9-30 1905. Both sides had reasons to make a deal. The war had been unpopular in Russia and Japan was suffering economically from the war. The Japanese got the territorial concessions it wanted but failed to get reparations from Russia. The treaty was signed on 5 September 1905 and later ratified by both governments. The above photo has the Russian delegation on the far side of the table and the Japanese on the near side. Photo: P. F. Collier & Son Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Anti-Japanese sentiments would grow because of the war. In California, the Alien Land Act was passed in 1913. This law prohibited the ownership or leasing of land by those banned from citizenship under federal law. Many Japanese immigrants had bought agricultural land to raise crops, so the law was to target them (it also affected Chinese and others as well). To get around it, many Japanese put their American born male children as owners. Such laws were common in many Western states. And legislatures enacted restrictions on that later as well. The U.S. Supreme Court declared such laws constitutional and would remain in force until the 1950’s. Then they were either rescinded or made invalid when the Supreme Court ruled that they were unconstitutional (Oyama v?. California (1948) and Fuji Sei v. State of California (1952). During the time they were in place, many Japanese Americans were forced to give up their farms and relocate elsewhere.
Russian prestige was hit hard by the disastrous military defeat. Other powers (Britain, France, Germany and to a lesser extent the United States), no longer viewed Russia as a strong military power. Russia was already considered a backward country where much of its population was agrarian with a thin industrial stratum of industrial workers. They had serfdom-where landless peasants were forced to serve nobility who owned lands-until 1861. The large cities by 1900 had become overcrowded with industrial workers who were not paid very much. A combination of costly wars starting in the last century, periods of famine, and general resentment against the monarchy all contributed to the Russian Revolution of 1905. While the Czar did implement reforms to placate the populace, its entry into World War I with food rations, inflation, and again military defeats ended the monarchy, brought a short period of a moderate government that nominally kept the war going, and then it was replaced by a repressive Communist government after the revolution in 1918.
Babe Ruth in his first season with the New York Yankees during a game in 1920. Public Domain (via Wikimedia Commons)
Babe Ruth, who had spent the best years of his career with the New York Yankees, was released by them in February 1935. The Boston Braves picked him up and was led to believe it would lead to managing the team. However, most of what he was asked to do was promotional, which disappointed him. At forty, his career playing baseball was coming to an end.
On 25 May 1935 the Boston Braves were playing against the Pirates. It was a game to be long remembered. By the seventh inning, the Pirates still led 7-5 despite two home runs earlier by Ruth. Fans were excited to see Ruth and cheered him on as be came to bat. When the ball hit the bat, fans remembered that smack that indicated he had hit a home run. The ball cleared Forbes Field right field roof and the fans roared in delight. As he ran the bases, he saluted the fans with his cap. The Braves tied the game in the inning, but the Pirates would score three more times and in the eighth add one more run for a final score of 11-7. Ruth’s record of 714 home runs would not be broken for forty years.
“Babe Ruth Bows Out”, photograph of Babe Ruth during a ceremony at Yankee Stadium to retire his number on 13 June 1948. This photograph won the 1949 Pulitzer Prize for Photography. Author: Nathaniel Fein Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Ruth played a few more games but retired from baseball on 4 June 1935. His dream of one day managing a baseball team would never happen. He would work briefly as a first base coach for the Dodgers in 1938 but that would be his last baseball position. He would appear at exhibition games and still drew crowds. He appeared at the Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day at Yankee Stadium on 4 July 1930 to honor his former teammate forced to retire due to ALS (or also known as Lou Gehrig’s Syndrome). During World War II, he made many appearances to support the war including the 1943 exhibition game for the Army-Navy Relief Fund at Yankee Stadium. He also became a celebrity golfer often drawing crowds in charity tournaments.
He passed away from throat cancer on 16 August 1948 at Memorial Hospital in New York. Many had gathered outside holding vigil during his final hours. After his death, the casket was taken to Yankee Stadium so that fans could pay their last respects. It was there for two days and around 77,000 people paid their respects. His funeral at St. Patrick’s Cathedral was presided by Cardinal Spellman and was filled and thousands (estimated to be 75,000 total) outside. A monument in his honor was erected at Yankee Stadium. When the stadium was renovated, it and other monuments became part of the new Monument Park that can be seen today.
Today is Memorial Day, a day set aside to remember those who gave all to serve this country. At national cemeteries and smaller ones around the country, flags and flowers have been placed to remember them. We also remind ourselves that freedom is not easily granted, often requires great sacrifice. President Lincoln made note of this in his famous 1863 Gettysburg Address:
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate, we can not consecrate, we can not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
God of power and mercy,
you destroy war and put down earthly pride.
Banish violence from our midst and wipe away our tears,
that we may all deserve to be called your sons
and daughters.
Keep in your mercy those men and women
who have died in the cause of freedom
and bring them safely
into your kingdom of justice and peace.
We ask this though Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen
(Memorial Day Prayer, USCCB)
Gravestones at Arlington National Cemetery decorated by U.S. flags on Memorial Day weekend. Photo:Public domainArlington National Cemetery, Memorial Day, 1924 Photo: U.S. Library of Congress, digital id npcc 11495
The signing of the Pact of Steel on 22 May 1939 in Berlin Photographer unknown Public Domain/WIkimedia Commons
On 22 May 1939, Germany and Italy signed the Pact of Friendship and Alliance that became known later as the Pact of Steel. This began the formal military and political alliance between the two countries. Initially Japan was to be part of the agreement but there was disagreement on the focus of the pact. Germany and Italy wanted it aimed at the British Empire and France, while Japan wanted the Soviet Union to be the focus. The agreement was signed without Japan but would later join in September 1940.
The agreement brought together two countries that opposed each other in World War I. It also required each country to come to the aid of the other if it were in armed conflict with another nation. Neither party could make peace without the agreement of the other. One of the assumptions of the agreement was that war would start in three years at the latest. Italy needed the time to get its war production into high gear. The agreement was for ten years but there was some concern within the Italian government the agreement would suppress Italian autonomy. The agreement was still signed despite these objections, which also came from Mussolini’s son-in-law, Galeazzo Ciano, who was the Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Hitler, however, would soon declare his intentions of invading Poland. Mussolini was not happy he was not consulted on this, nor about the Molotov-Ribbentrop Agreement. Italian forces did not commit fully to war until June 1940 when German forces had defeated British and French forces with lightning speed. Italy seized Nice as its prize. Other countries it tried to invade proved more difficult. Greek partisans brought the Italian force to a halt. Germany would intervene to help there and in Yugoslavia where Italian troops also pushed back by partisans. A disastrous attack on British Egypt from Italian Libya required German assistance as well. The economic consequences of the war were bad for most Italians generating widespread resentment that would lead one day to Mussolini’s fall from power in 1943.
Nations of the Pact of Friendship and Alliance (Pact of Steel)
[This has been rewritten from 2025 and includes more sources along with suggested reading.]
Map of the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806) Image: Goszei via Wikimedia Commons
In 1803 the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory from France for the price of 3 cents per acre for 828,000 miles of land. Next to the purchase of Alaska from Russia later in the century, it is one of the best land deals in United States history.
Outside of general descriptions, the exact contents of the territory were unknown. President Jefferson commissioned a “Corps of Discovery” to be headed up by Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark. It was not only to map the new land purchase but to explore the Pacific Northwest as well to see if any possible Northwest Passage (a water route between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans) existed. Meriwether Lewis, who had both military and frontier experience and was Jefferson’s private secretary was selected by President Jefferson. William Clark, who had both military and frontier experience, had notable skills in navigation and cartography, was selected as co-captain by Lewis as he had served under him.
On 14 May 1804 the Corps of Discovery left St. Louis with 45 men (soldiers, interpreters, and boatmen) to begin their journey into the newly purchased American interior. Traveling up the Missouri River in six canoes and two longboats, they would winter in Dakota. Then they headed into Montana encountering the Rocky Mountains and met the Shoshone on the other side of the Continental Divide. They purchased horses from them and continued into the Bitterroot Mountains, down the rapids of the Clearwater and Snake Rivers, reaching the Columbia River and eventually the Pacific Ocean arriving on 8 November 1805. They paused there for the winter and headed back to St. Louis in the spring arriving on 23 September 1806.
They had traveled an astonishing 8,000 miles compiling detailed information that gave the first detailed look on the new territory and on the Pacific Northwest as well. They catalogued everything they saw on the journey–plants, animals, birds, minerals, people encountered, the mountains and rivers they saw–making their report one of the most consequential in the history of the United States. The report confirmed the newly purchased land had navigable rivers, land for people to settle on with plenty of game. They documented 122 animal species and 178 plants that were unknown till then. Their sketches, descriptions, and samples they brought back would excite the scientific world. And their detailed maps with coordinates would help further explorers and settlers. Other explorers like John C. Fremont found that their calculations as to the locations of rivers and other places were reliable; there were no major revisions and only minor ones that were done.
During their journey they encountered many diseases and ailments but only one person, Sergeant Charles Floyd, died during the journey from what now is believed to be acute appendicitis. A medical kit supplied by President Jefferson helped them on their journey, but sometimes contaminated water consumed on the journey resulted in occasional dysentery outbreaks. In addition to the medical kit, they did use natural remedies for fevers and other issues. Despite often poor sanitation and dealing with mosquitoes, they made the journey and returned home.
Map of Lewis and Clark’s Track, Across the Western Portion of North America “History Of The Expedition Under The Command Of Captains Lewis And Clark, To The Sources Of The Missouri, Thence Across The Rocky Mountains And Down The River Columbia To The Pacific Ocean” by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark et al. 1814 Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
“Home | Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.” Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Accessed May 19, 2026. https://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/.
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[This has been rewritten from 2025 and new sources have been added]
East and West Shaking hands at the laying of last rail Union Pacific Railroad 10 May 1869 Andrew J. Russell (1829–1902), Restored by Adam Cuerden Yale University Libraries (via Wikimedia Commons)
The transcontinental railway that connected both coasts in May 1869 meant you could travel between both coasts increasing both cargo and people movement on a scale never seen before.
It is hard to think of a time without cars and airplanes to travel long distances, but for a long time you were limited to just foot, horse, and sail making long distance travel long and even dangerous. The development of the steam engine changed that forever. Trains that could haul people and cargo over distances became practical; steam engines replaced sails with steamships. Rail lines connecting cities appeared allowing for quicker movement of cargo in Europe and the United States. The dream of connecting both coasts was born to avoid sailing through Cape Horn or walking across the Isthmus of Panama and was fulfilled on May 10, 1865.
In 1853, the U.S. Congress approved money for surveys for possible railroad routes. Delays due to where it should begin and of course the looming tensions between North and South delayed it. In 1862–with the Civil War underway–the Pacific Railroad Act was passed which provided loans and public land grants to build the railroad. A second one in 1864 was passed to increase the land grant sizes and allowed the railroads to sell bonds to raise capital. The Union Pacific began westward construction from Omaha, Nebraska and the Central Pacific began constructing eastward from Sacramento, California. Construction was arduous, difficult due to extremes of heat and cold, and often lived in miserable conditions. Chinese laborers who worked for the Central Pacific worked long hours for less pay than their counterparts at Union Pacific.
Construction of rails and tunnels in the Sierra Nevada mountains was difficult, and avalanches would take whole work crews. Dynamite had not been invented yet, so for blasting rock black powder or nitroglycerin was used. Nitroglycerin was not widely known, having been made into a blasting agent by Alfred Nobel in the early 1860’s. Used in its liquid form before dynamite was invented (also by Nobel), was extremely dangerous to handle, sometimes exploding due to mishandling or temperature changes.
In April 1866 70 crates of nitroglycerin exploded aboard a steamship bound for California, killing fifty people. Not long after that a nitroglycerin explosion occurred in San Francisco at the Wells Fargo office killing fifteen people. Railroad workers in the Sierra Nevada were killed transporting nitroglycerin. This resulted in a California law banning liquid nitroglycerin from being transported in the state and Central Pacific using black powder from that point on.
Crates of Nitroglycerin exploded at the Wells Fargo office in San Francisco in 1866. After this explosion, Wells Fargo refused to handle any further shipments of the volatile liquid. The photo above was part of photographic evidence entered into a legal proceeding. Image: Carleton Watkins (American, 1829 – 1916), photographer The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, 98.XC.167.65
Despite the obstacles and even initially building lines that did not connect, the transcontinental railroad was finished, under budget, and ahead of schedule in 1869. By June 1869 it was entirely possible to travel by rail from Jersey City, New Jersey to the Alameda Wharf in Oakland, CA. There you would catch a railroad owned ferry to San Francisco. Why not go directly to San Francisco? You would have to head down to San Jose and then take a second train, the San Francisco & San Jose Railroad, which came into San Francisco adding additional hours to your trip. Freight cars were unloaded in Alameda, loaded onto special ferries to be transported across the bay to San Francisco. They then would be unloaded onto specially built railroad piers and hauled away by the local railroad that serviced the wharves.
Advertisements carried in The Salt Lake Daily Telegraph showing both Central Pacific and Union Pacific Railroads ability to know travel between both the East and West coasts of the United States. Appeared the week that the two rail lines were joined in Utah on 10 May 1869. Source: The Cooper Collection of US Railroad History Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
The establishment of the transcontinental railroad made possible quick delivery of passengers, freight, and mail across the country. What used to take weeks or months of travel was now just a week at most. Timetables from that time showed a how long a journey would take:
New Jersey to Omaha: 2-3 days.
Omaha to Sacramento: 2-3 days.
Sacramento to Alameda: 1 day.
No longer the uncomfortable ride on a stagecoach or a long sea voyage. Now it was just at most a week between coasts resulting in a significant boost to the economy. New communities would form where the trains stopped. Immigrants from Europe would now easily move into the interior building homes resulting in new communities filling up the country. The transcontinental railroad united the country, spurred economic growth, and the settling of the country. The railroad remained an important component of travel until replaced by the auto and airplane.
