Category Archives: History

Remembering History: Sinking of Lusitania (7 May 1915)

May 7, 2026 Mark Taylor Leave a comment

RMS Lusitania Coming Into Port (circa 1907-1913)
George Grantham Bain Collection, US Library of Congress, Digital Id cph.3g13287.
Public Domain

On 7 May 1915, the Cunard liner RMS Lusitania sailing from New York to Liverpool was torpedoed off Ireland and sank within 18 minutes. Of the 1,959 passengers and crew aboard, only 761 would survive. 128 of the passengers were American.

World War II had begun in 1914 between Britain, France, and Russia (including Belgium, Italy, Portugal, and Serbia) and Germany, Austria Hungary, and Turkey (then called Ottoman Empire). The United States, under President Woodrow Wilson, declared neutrality. Since the U.S. was a major trading partner with Britain, problems arose when Germany tried to quarantine the British Isles using mines. Several American ships ended up being damaged or sunk as a result. In February 1915, Germany declared unrestricted submarine warfare around British waters. This meant any ship entering these waters were subject to being attacked and sunk by German forces.

To make this very clear, the German embassy in Washington had advertisements run in New York newspapers in early May 1915 that Americans traveling on British or Allied ships in war zones did so at their own risk. In one case, the announcement was on the same page as advertisement of the Lusitania sailing from New York to Liverpool.

Warning issued by Imperial German Embassy in Washington about travelling on RMS Lusitania.
Author Unknown
Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

The British Admiralty issued warnings, due to merchant ships being sunk off the south coast of Ireland, to ships to avoid the area or take evasive action (zigzagging was advised). The British objected by pointing out that threatening to torpedo all ships was wrong, whether announced in advance or not. During her construction, subsidized by the British government, it was done with the proviso she could be converted to an armed merchant cruiser.

A compartment was also installed to for the purposes of carrying arms and ammunition if it were needed. Gun mounts were installed for deck cannons, but they were not installed. At the time of her sinking, she was not operating in any official capacity as an armed merchant cruiser. The Germans suspected the ship was being used to transport munitions and her repainting to a grey color was an attempt to disguise her (it was, but to make it harder to spot from a periscope).

The Lusitania was one of the fastest liners on the Atlantic capable of 25 knots (29 mph) with many refinements. With lifts, the wireless telegraph, electric lights, and more passenger space (and more sumptuous accomodations), traveling on the Lusitania or her sister ships Aquitania and Maurentania was considered a good experience by seasoned travelers. The fact that she traveled so fast makes it likely it was simply being in the right place and the right time for the German U-boat. She could not possibly have caught the speedy vessel otherwise (there are arguments about what speed Lusitania was doing at this time off Ireland).

Engraving of Lusitania Sinking by Norman Wilkinson, The Illustrated London News, May 15, 1915
Public Domain(Wikimedia)

Captain William Turner did not use zigzagging while in the area (many argue that it does not really work). The commanding officer of the U-boat, Walther Schwieger, ordered one torpedo fired around 14:10 (2:10 pm). It struck the Lusitania on the starboard bow. A second explosion within the ship occurred and the ship began to founder starboard quickly. While the crew tried to launch the lifeboats, the severe list made it difficult and impossible in many cases. Only six of the forty-eight lifeboats would be launched. The ship sank in 18 minutes taking with her 1, 198 souls. Of the 764 that did survive (and that is a heroic tale of itself), three would die later from wounds sustained from the sinking. Though close to the coast, it would be some time before assistance arrived. Local fishing ships were the first to provide assistance, and later the naval patrol boat Heron. Other small ships provided assistance as well.

Aftermath

The sinking provoked international fury at Germany. Germany defended its actions saying the ship had been carrying contraband and was an armed auxiliary military cruiser. The reaction within Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey was criticism of the sinking. The German government tried to defend the sinking, even though she was not armed, by saying she was carrying contraband and they had warned this would happen. The official statements did not go over well in the United States or in Britain. Editorials in newspapers denounced what Germany had done calling for more to bring them to heel. It was hotly debated within the Wilson administration what to do. Wilson condemned what Germany had done but internally but William Jennings Bryan, the Secretary of State, argued for trying to convince both Britain and Germany to ratchet down some of the actions that had led to Lusitania sinking. Bryan was antiwar and like many did not want the U.S. getting involved in the European war.

Dead Wake: The Last Crossing of the Lusitania by Erik Larson

President Wilson would send three notes to Germany that made his position clear on the issue. First he said that Americans had the right to travel on merchant ships and for Germany to abandon submarine warfare on such vessels. Second, he rejected German arguments about Lusitania. This note caused Bryan to resign and was replaced by Robert Lansing. The third note was a warning that any subsequent sinkings would be “deliberately unfriendly.” That last one made it clear America’s position on the matter. While many wanted to stay out of the war, if the Germans did do it again they likely would find themselves at war with them.

The British government and press were not happy with Wilson over these notes. He was widely castigated and sneered. The reality was that American public opinion was not in favor of war. Wilson knew this and hoped Germany would stop attacking merchant vessels. There was some attempt within the German government to forbid action against neutral ships, which did curtail unrestricted submarine warfare for a while. British merchant ships were targeted, neutral ships treated differently (boarded and searched for war materials), and passenger ships left alone. But in 1917, Germany announced it would resume unrestricted submarine warfare. Wilson was furious and began preparations for war with Germany.

Shop For Lusitania books on Amazon

Sources

“German Submarine Sinks Lusitania | May 7, 1915 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified February 18, 2025. Accessed May 7, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/May-7/german-submarine-sinks-lusitania.

“Lusitania: History, Sinking, Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified March 28, 2026. Accessed May 7, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lusitania-British-ship.

The Lusitania Resource. “The Lusitania Resource: Passengers & Crew, Facts & History.” The Lusitania Resource. Last modified May 3, 2025. https://www.rmslusitania.info/.

Library of Congress. 2015. “The Lusitania Disaster | Articles & Essays | Newspaper Pictorials: World War I Rotogravures, 1914-1919 | Digital Collections | Library of Congress.” The Library of Congress. The Library of Congress. 2015. https://www.loc.gov/collections/world-war-i-rotogravures/articles-and-essays/the-lusitania-disaster/.

“Torpedoes and Tragedy: The Sinking of RMS Lusitania.” 2023. National WWI Museum and Memorial. 2023. https://www.theworldwar.org/learn/about-wwi/torpedoes-and-tragedy-sinking-rms-lusitania.

History

Remembering History: The Hindenburg Disaster (6 May 1937)

May 6, 2026 Mark Taylor Leave a comment

[Note this has been rewritten from 2025 for conciseness and additional source information]

On 6 May 1937, the German airship Hindenburg caught fire and was destroyed while docking at Naval Air Station Lakehurst, New Jersey. Of the 97 passengers and crew, 35 died, and one ground worker was killed.

Airship Hindenburg crash in Lakehurst, New Jersey on May 6, 1937
Photo originally taken by Murray Becker, AP
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

The Silver Giant was the nickname of the German airship Hindenburg. At 804 feet long she was just 80 feet shorter than Titanic and was the largest aircraft ever built. She traveled at 80 miles an hour making a journey from Germany to the United States in 2 ½ days, faster than passenger liners of the day. It was a marvel of aviation to see these German airships move through the skies offering unparalleled views that modern day passenger jets rarely offer. Airships were essentially giant balloons, a technology that had been around since the 18^th century and it was the German Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin that developed them. His first creations were only a modest success but World War I saw them used for aerial bombings. Now called Zeppelins, they would drop bombs on unsuspecting people below in London or Paris causing panic. The damage they did was minimal and the British had a hard time shooting them down requiring newer ammunition be developed.

German engineers after the war designed airships as long range passenger ships to cross the Atlantic. While a test flight in 1919 showed it could be done, it would take until 1928 when the age of airship travel began. The Graf Zeppelin, launched in 1928, carried passengers in style that rivaled that of passenger lines. Commercial service between Germany, the United States, and South America commenced. Launched in 1936, Hindenburg made roundtrips to the United States and Brazil. It ?had 25 two person cabins, a bar, restaurant, and smoking lounge. Meals were served three times a day on fine china, with a grand piano as well. It was luxuriously decorated evoking a style only the most upscale hotels or passenger liners would do. One way cost $400 and most considered the experience worth the cost. All the German airships were originally designed to use helium, but the United States banned its export to Germany, so they used hydrogen instead.

Hydrogen being flammable required additional safety measures to ensure it would not contact anything that might ignite it. The smoking lounge was pressurized to keep the gas out. Smoking was forbidden outside of that area. The engines–4 Daimler Benz 16-cylinder engines that gave it were far away from the gas as well. A crew of forty was aboard the airship that day when it arrived in the United States. Despite this, many considered it safe and a better flying experience than taking an airplane. Its only rival was the Pan Am Clipper, which offered service to Asia, and many said was just as good. The future looked bright for airships, but what happened on May 6, 1937, would change that forever.

Scheduled to dock at the Lakehurst Naval Air Station in New Jersey, it first flew over Manhattan to give passengers a spectacular view of the city. The landing was delayed though due to winds of up to 25 knots. Being lighter than air, this would make landings difficult. Heading south until a storm had passed, then turned back at 6 pm and was scheduled to dock at 7 pm. As they approached, they dropped some ballast water splashing onlookers at the landing area. Hindenburg passengers could be seen looking out the windows by people on the ground around 7:21 pm. All looked normal to flight officers and crew were ready on the ground for the mooring line to drop from the tail and rear landing wheel.

Witnesses say they saw a mushroom size flame rise from the top of the tail section, just in front of the tail fin around 7:25 pm. Crew in the tail heard a detonation that reminded them of a burner on a gas stove. Fire spread rapidly engulfing the midsection in flames before the tail hit the ground. Soon the entire airship was being consumed in flames in just 34 seconds leaving both passengers and crew little time to react. Many jumped when the ship was still high, perishing when they hit the ground. Many were trapped by both furniture and dead passengers. Some managed to walk out when it hit the ground or were rescued from its burning remains. An infirmary was used for survivors, and the press room was converted into a temporary morgue. Only 13 of the 35 passengers survived.

Due to the large number of reporters present, photographs and filming of the arrival was done. Reporters quickly called in their stories and photographs of the burning Hindenburg were quickly developed and published. Live reporting was rare, so most recorded their broadcast for later as was done by WLS (Chicago) reporter Herbert Morrison. His reporting of seeing the Hindenburg being destroyed was played the next day and went down in journalist history and forever associated him with the event. His by the minute account related to everyone who listened to the horror he saw and his interviews with people who saw or survived it as well. One interesting fact though was it was recorded at a higher speed making his voice sound higher than it was. You can listen to the full broadcast by going here.

The extensive investigation that followed resulted in neither German nor American inquiries finding sabotage was the cause. The American report found:

The cause of the accident was the ignition of a mixture of free hydrogen and air. Based upon the evidence, a leak at or in the vicinity of cell 4 and 5 caused a combustible mixture of hydrogen and air to form in the upper stern part of the ship in considerable quantity; the first appearance of an open flame was on the top of the ship and a relatively short distance forward of the upper vertical fin. The theory that a brush discharge ignited such mixture appears most probable.

It was then a tragic accident. A hydrogen leak had occurred and was ignited causing the terrible disaster. In the aftermath of this tragedy, the Zeppelins would continue to fly but their popularity began to wane. The Pan Am Clipper, originally designed to cross the Atlantic but banned by the British wanting to develop their own, showed long range planes were a viable service. In the United States, airship development had met mostly with disaster and was shelved. World War II saw the end of airships, and they never returned to passenger service. After the war, airplanes became dominant replacing passenger liners and trains for medium to long distance travel. While the modern-day versions are just used now for tours and taking live video shots of major events. However, there are some who believe, due to rising fuel costs and other issues, that perhaps airships may yet be viable again.

Over the years countless theories have been put forward to explain what happened to the Hindenburg: lightning, static spark, engine failure, incendiary paint, hydrogen leak, or a fuel leak. Some have argued sabotage was indeed the cause, though proof has been difficult to determine with a high degree of certainty. The tv show MythBusters looked at the incendiary paint theory and determined it was not probable. Occam’s Razor is perhaps the best guide here. The simplest explanation–a hydrogen leak ignited by its contact with air-is probably the truth.

Sources

“The Hindenburg, Before and After Disaster.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed May 6, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/story/the-hindenburg-before-and-after-disaster.

“The Hindenburg Disaster | May 6, 1937 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified April 24, 2026. Accessed May 6, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/may-6/the-hindenburg-disaster.

“All About the Hindenburg — Adam Cap.” Adam Cap. Last modified January 22, 2019. Accessed May 6, 2026. https://adamcap.com/schoolwork/2698/.

“Oh The Humanity! Herbert Morrison and the Hindenburg.” Airships.Net. Last modified February 15, 2017. Accessed May 6, 2026. https://www.airships.net/hindenburg/disaster/oh-the-humanity-herbert-morrison-and-the-hindenburg/.

Disasters. “Seconds From Disaster the Hindenburg | Full Episode | National Geographic Documentary.” Video. YouTube, May 6, 2021. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KowvaxobrQg.

Videos & Documentaries

British Pathé. “Hindenburg Disaster – Real Footage (1937) | British Pathé.” Video. YouTube, March 24, 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fURATK5Yt30.

NOVA PBS Official. “Newly Analyzed Footage Helps Solve Hindenburg Mystery.” Video. YouTube, May 17, 2021. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UFCgipjR2ow.

The History Guy: History Deserves to Be Remembered. “Hindenburg Reconsidered.” Video. YouTube, May 6, 2026. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2KxbATAhBiU.

Tasting History with Max Miller, “The Hindenburg Disaster – Dining on the Zeppelin,” Video, YouTube, November 28, 2023, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s8BqxWbX_r8.

Disasters. “Seconds From Disaster the Hindenburg | Full Episode | National Geographic Documentary.” Video. YouTube, May 6, 2021. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KowvaxobrQg.

History

Fascinating History: U.S. Starts Building Panama Canal (4 May 1905)

May 4, 2026 Mark Taylor Leave a comment

[This has been rewritten for 2026 with updated sources and information.]

View from a unidentified sailing ship during a storm at Cape Horn
Circa 1854-1954 (no exact date exists)
Source: National Library of Australia
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

The dream of sailors for centuries was a simpler way to sail between Europe and Asia. The trek was dangerous no matter which route you took going around Africa or sailing to the bottom of South America through Cape Horn where the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans meet. To access the west coast of North and South America or sailing to China or Japan, the Cape Horn route was preferred. However, the area is treacherous due to both oceans meeting there causing many shipwrecks. Explorers often found their fleets thinned out in this area. The land route through the Isthmus of Panama allowed people to cross from one side to the other allowing people to catch ships on the other end avoiding the Cape Horn route. The road was 49 miles (80 km) and a simple path through the jungle. Built by the Spanish for military rather than commercial use, the walk was not easy, often very hot, with dangers such as malaria and dangerous animals resulting in many injuries and deaths. It was not a journey for the faint of heart. Eventually a railroad would be built to connect both sides, but its limitations meant ships still had to carry large amounts of cargo and people around Cape Horn. The dream of a canal was born but connecting it would prove a far greater challenge than was thought.

Bienvenu! The French Effort to Build the Canal

Ferdinand de Lesseps (1805-1894) photographed by Nadar
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

The Congress for Study of an Interoceanic Canal, headed up by Lesseps, started in 1879 with delegates from all over the world to examine ways to do it. Except only a small number of these delegates were actual engineers. More a fundraising event and to legitimize the idea Lesseps had of sea level canal (itself based on plans by Lucien Bonaparte-Wyse and Armand Réclus). Of the engineers that were present, only one had been to Central America. It was original projected cost was $214 million but Lesseps, for unknown reasons, lowered it to $120 million and six years of construction to build. When construction began in January 1881 at Culebra, the goal was to create a sea-level canal but required extensive removal of rock to do this. Hiring the workers proved easy at first along with engineers. Most of the workers came from African-Caribbean workers from the West Indies. However, deaths from malaria and other causes took their toll and soon replacing workers and engineers became difficult. The death toll from 1881-1889 is estimated to be over 22.000 but considered low by many.

The problems with building the canal became apparent soon. To make the canal feasible and at sea level required not only massive rock excavation but diversion of rivers to prevent currents in the canal. They found at the lowest level it was still 360 feet or 109 meters too high. And they finally realized in 1885 there was no way to resolve this except via a lock canal. Lesseps (and others) resisted this, but engineering studies showed this to be true. The plan was changed in 1887 resulting in a major scandal over this issue. No one had bothered to properly survey before construction began, angering investors and bringing criticism on the project. And news from the construction itself was not encouraging either. High mortality rate, flooding, mudslides slowed construction. Work ended on May 15, 1889, and the company went bankrupt. $244 million had been spent and only two-fifths of the canal was done.

Adieu, France. Hello, United States.

A problem immediately emerged with the Colombia concession resulting in a new treaty to resolve the issue. The Hay-Herran Treaty of 1903 gave the U.S. the rights to build the canal in Panama. However, the Colombia senate did not ratify it leaving the U.S. with company and land but no rights to build in Panama. The peoples who lived in Panama had in the past sought independence that Columbia had refused. President Theodore Roosevelt made it known that if they sought it again, the U.S. would support it. This happened on November 2, 1903, when people in Panama were moving to declare independence from Colombia and the USS Nashville was in Colón Harbor at the time.

Photograph of the USS Nashville (PG-7) at the Norfolk Navy Yard, Virginia, 8 January 1898
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Colombian troops had also arrived with the intent on boarding the Panama Railroad to stop the insurrection in Panama City. The train was blocked by Nashville crew under the authority of an 1846 treaty that transit across the Isthmus remain neutral. A detachment of both sailors and Marines took control of the rail yard. With Nashville’s guns pointed right at the Colombian camp, things were tense and Colombian forces under Colonel Eliseo Torres threatened attack. The Nashville aimed her broadside guns directly on the Colombian positions and they backed down. Independence for Panama was declared on November 3, and the new government gave the U.S. the Panama Canal Zone. Additionally, the U.S. gave $10 million, got the rights to administer and canal defense, and to split the fees for canal use. This was formalized on May 4, 1905 (called Acquisition Day) and construction would commence.

Construction began in 1905 and was completed by 1914 with a 52-mile canal connecting both the Atlantic and Pacific. This now allowed the commercial traffic to avoid using the Cape Horn route making travel times much quicker. The 10-mile Panama Canal Zone would grow in status and importance. All but the supersize ships can use the canal; they still must take the long trek down to Cape Horn.

Panama Canal (1923)
Original Source: Historical Atlas” by William R. Shepherd, New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1923
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Updates

2025: Since 1999, the Panama Canal Authority has contracted with foreign companies that operated and controlled ports in the canal zone. Panama also contracted with a Chinese company to oversee administration and operation of the canal that came under sharp criticism by President Trump concerned that it gave the Chinese too much power over the Panama Canal. Panama ended its contract and currently seeking bids from other companies to administer and operate the canal.

2026: Panama has developed a 10-year modernization plan that will upgrade the canal, build new terminals on both side, installation of a gas line to allow gas to move from one side to the other without the need of ships to pass through, and improving crossing times for ships. Also Panama will regain control of ports formerly contracted with foreign companies thus increasing its control over the canal.

Sources

“Panama Canal: History, Impact & Canal Zone.” History.com. Last modified April 30, 2026. Accessed May 4, 2026. https://www.history.com/articles/panama-canal.

“Panama Canal Treaty 1977.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed May 4, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Panama-Canal-Treaty.

Worthington, William E. “Panama Canal.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified April 29, 2026. Accessed May 4, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Panama-Canal.

“Ships off Panama 1903.” Navy League Panama Foundation. Accessed May 4, 2026. https://www.navyleaguepanama.org/ships-off-panama-1903/.

Brigham, Lawson W. “Reinventing the Panama Canal.” Proceedings (U.S. Naval Institute) Vol. 152, no. 1 (January 2026). Accessed May 4, 2026.https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2026/january/reinventing-panama-canal.

Videos & Documentaries

HISTORY. “Modern Marvels: The Construction of the Panama Canal (S1, E3) | Full Episode | History.” Video. YouTube, August 15, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6LNuRW9t4JA.

Steve Noble. “Panama Canal – Full Transit- Time Lapse.” Video. YouTube, March 11, 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m8TkcWhmByg.

Tips For Travellers. “The Dos and Don’ts of PANAMA CANAL CRUISES!” Video. YouTube, March 19, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uk75Umge8mw.

History, Miscellaneous

Welcome to May!

May 1, 2026 Mark Taylor Leave a comment

Welcome to May!

May, from the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry (1412-1416)
Limbourg brothers (fl. 1402–1416)
Public Domain (Wikimedia Commons)

May is the fifth month on both the Gregorian and Julian calendars and has 31 days. The name May (Maius in Latin) is named for the Greek goddess Maia who represents nurturing and renewal. She was co-identified with the Roman goddess Bona Dea who was associated with fertility, healing, and the protection of women. Her festival took place in May, so both were intertwined. May is the last full month of spring in the Northern Hemisphere (and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere).

The first full moon in May is called the Flower Moon as it coincides with blooming flowers. There is an adage for May: “A warm January, cold May,” As the transitional month between spring and summer, you can get both warm and sunny days followed by chilly ones as well. In older times, people used to shutter up their houses (or specific rooms in larger houses that could not be used in winter) for the winter. May was often the time to open the house back up again and let the warm spring air inside. On the old television show The Beverly Hillbillies granny would remove everything from the house to clean thoroughly inside.

Bouquet of beautiful red roses
Davidjose365, May 2015
Wikimedia Commons

In ancient times, festivals celebrated plants beginning to bloom. The tradition continues to this day with many festivals held in Europe and elsewhere. By the end of May, summer is approaching and many are already prepared for it. While astronomically it does not begin until mid-June, most mark the last day of June as the beginning of summer. Schools are ending for the summer, and many people begin to start their summer vacations also in May. For those interested, the May symbols are the emerald (birthstone), and for flowers lily of the valley and hawthorn.

Sources

———. “The month of May 2026: Holidays, fun facts, folklore.” Almanac.Com. Last modified April 23, 2026. Accessed April 30, 2026. https://www.almanac.com/content/month-may-holidays-fun-facts-folklore.

Rehberger, Georg. “May Is the Fifth Month of the Year.” TimeandDate.com. Accessed April 30, 2026. https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/months/may.html.

———. “The Surprising History of May | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified May 27, 2025. Accessed April 30, 2026. https://www.history.com/articles/history-may-month.

History

Remembering History: Hitler Commits Suicide (30 April 1945

April 30, 2026 Mark Taylor Leave a comment

U.S. Army newspaper Stars and Stripes announcing Hitler’s death
2 May 1945
Original source: U.S. Army
Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

Adolf Hitler, the leader and founder of the 1,000 Reich, committed suicide along with his wife Eva Braun. His death would end the war in Europe.

Since the defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, it had become increasingly apparent that Allied forces had turned the tide. Germany had lost North Africa, Italy had been liberated, and Allied troops were on German soil. The capture and execution of Benito Mussolini also weighed on Hitler’s mind in his final days in the underground bunker. Since learning the war was lost with Soviet troops now in Berlin, he had become more erratic.

Hermann Goering, head of the Luftwaffe and Hitler’s designated successor, tried to take over but was denounced, arrested, and stripped of his powers. Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, had entered into secret negotiations with the Allies via Sweden. Hitler had considered him one of his most loyal subjects, but when the BBC announced the negotiations, he too was denounced, stripped of his powers, and ordered arrested. Both would commit suicide later; Himmler not long after he was caught and Goering the night before his scheduled execution for war crimes.

Most of Hitler’s aides and lieutenants had left except for General Krebs, Martin Bormann, and Joseph Goebbels. Albert Speer had been ordered to carry out a scorched earth policy in Berlin but declined to do it. Hitler believed Germany was unworthy and allowed themselves to be defeated. In the early hours of April 29, 1945, Hitler married his long-time mistress, Eva Braun. He dictated his will and political testament. The will was short while the testament laid out a defense of his life and actions taken for Germany. He also appointed those to lead after his death.

On the afternoon of April 30, 1945, Hitler shot himself in the head (though some argue he took poison in case he survived) while Eva took poison. He ordered both bodies be burned in the Chancellery Garden. Goebbels transmitted the message to Admiral Karl Doenitz that he had been appointed president by Hitler. Goebbels and his wife would take their own lives later but would first kill their children with cyanide. His death was announced on May 1, 1945, by Hamburg Radio. The surrender of German troops in Italy and elsewhere would begin thereafter and all German forces had surrendered by May 5, 1945. Celebrations broke out after his death and later the full capitulation of German forces. The war in Europe was over but the war against Japan would continue for several more months.

Sources
Adolf Hitler Commits Suicide in His Underground Bunker | April 30, 1945 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified May 28, 2025. Accessed April 29, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/april-30/adolf-hitler-commits-suicide.

Bullock, Allan. “Adolf Hitler.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified April 29, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Adolf-Hitler/World-War-II.

Huxen, Keith. “The Death of Adolf Hitler.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. Last modified March 29, 2020. Accessed April 29, 2026. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/death-of-adolf-hitler.

Videos

HistoryChannel. “May 1, 1945: BBC Radio Announcement of Adolf Hitler’s Death.” Video. YouTube, November 7, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=btHJYt5YE9s.

Release – Topic. “Death of Hitler: German Announcement, 8 May 1945.” Video. YouTube, November 11, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6U_5cCoZvM.

Remembering History: Mussolini Executed by Italian Partisans (28 April 1945)

April 29, 2026 Mark Taylor Leave a comment

Benito Mussolini, who once ruled Italy and created Fascism, was executed by Italian partisans while attempting to flee Italy.

Benito Mussolini started out as Communist, became dissatisfied with it, and conceived a new ideology called Fascism that fused elements of Communism with Nationalism. Italy after World War I was economically suffering. It had supported the Allies and was promised territory but got nothing. Mostly agrarian based with only a few centers of large industry, Italy was considered backward by European standards. Mussolini sought to change this by making people believe in Italy again. Being an ardent Communist and editing one of Italy’s prominent Communist newspapers, he originally believed in its principles but World War I disillusioned him. He crafted a new ideology, Fascism, that incorporated elements of both Communism and Nationalism, that would bring about a better nation.

His movement garnered many supporters eager to make Italy a better and stronger nation. After King Emmanuel III dissolved parliament in 1921, Mussolini used this to demand more power. His party had gained seats and with uniformed members out on the streets, highly visible as well. They gained power in cities, and the Black Shirts went after Communists and Socialists destroying their offices. In 1922, King Emmanuel was faced with major problems of civil unrest. Calling out the army did little good and the Fascists controlled many municipalities. A march on Rome brought Mussolini and thousands to Rome demanding he be put into power. To avoid more unrest, King Emmanuel appointed him as Prime Minister and would rule Italy from 1923-1943.

Fascism, like Communism, disdained democracy as weak and governed as a one-party state where dissent was limited. Dissidents were imprisoned or executed depending on the severity of their actions. All media–print, radio, and movies–had to reflect the views of the government. Journalists had to belong to a national organization that would bound them to support Mussolini. Every aspect of life in Italy came under its control as Mussolini envisioned it would. The Catholic Boy Scouts were dissolved and replaced by a Fascist one called Opera Nazionale Balilla and all young boys were encouraged to join but it became mandatory in 1937. Much of what the Fascists did in Italy would become the model for Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party in Germany. Though Mussolini at first disdained Hitler, they eventually became friends. Both believed that Fascism was on the march and would replace the old order of Europe. The Spanish Civil War of 1936 saw both Hitler and Mussolini support General Francisco Franco against the Communist inspired government backed by Moscow.

Mussolini seized Ethiopia in 1935 sparking world-wide outrage over the use of mustard gas. Hitler backed him and both countries would exit the League of Nations in 1937. With the signing of the Pact of Steel in 1939, Mussolini had tied Italy to Germany’s war aims. Italy faced problems building up its military. It sorely lacked the industrial capability to build its own munitions, ships, and other necessities. Because of boycotts and refusals to sell resources from other countries, Italy became reliant on Germany for them. Germany also put pressure on Italy to adopt its policies about Jews and its eugenics policies. Scholars disagree on whether Mussolini was truly antisemitic or indifferent. He enacted some laws to satisfy them, but Germany was unhappy since they were considered lax by their standards. Only foreign-born Jews living in Italy would be deported. Jews in Italy and its territories faced no deportations until the Germans took control in 1943.

The signing of the Pact of Steel on 22 May 1939 in Berlin
Photographer unknown
Public Domain/WIkimedia Commons

World War II did not go well for Italy. From losing battles and needing German assistance in Greece and North Africa, it began to wear thin. Inflation and rationing caused unrest; Allied bombings of Rome and other places brought it home. The invasion of Sicily in 1943 and later southern Italy showed that the war was lost. Disillusionment with Mussolini was now louder resulting in the Fascist Grand Council, with the support of King Emmanuel, ousting Mussolini and starting negotiations to end the war. The Germans were furious and Mussolini, being held at Hotel Campo Imperatore on a remote mountain top, was rescued. Germany would invade and take control of Italy and its territories. Mussolini was put in charge of an Italian puppet state and would execute many who had removed him from power, including his son-in-law Count Galeazzo Ciano.

By April 1945 with increased partisan attacks and Allied troops making their way towards Milan, Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci fled inside German transports heading north near the Swiss border on April 27. Mussolini had hoped to flee to Spain where he hoped Franco would give him sanctuary. Unfortunately, partisans stopped the German transports on. After exchanging gunfire and lengthy negotiations, the partisans were allowed to search for Italians in the transports. Mussolini had put on a Wehrmacht noncommissioned officers coat and a helmet but was recognized. He, his mistress, and about fifty other Italians with him (some were wives and children) were arrested. Mussolini was taken to Dongo on Lake Como, interrogated and then put into a room with others who had been captured with him. He made a statement critical of Hitler and saying Stalin was the victor. He also signed a statement he had not been ill-treated.

The following day he, Clara, and others with him were shot and killed. Contradictory statements by different people over the years has made it difficult to pinpoint exactly who gave the order. Many of the partisans were aligned with Communist groups backed by Moscow, which used a radio beamed from Moscow (Radio Milano-Libertà) for Italians to announce his arrest. So many believe it was in the chain of command within those groups that ordered Mussolini’s execution. There are also different accounts as to what happened during the actual execution. They were executed with several bullets in their chests. The bodies were taken to the Piazzale Loreto in Milan and dumped there for all to see. People threw vegetables, spat on them, urinated, kicked the famous head of Mussolini, and even shot more bullets into their bodies. By the time American troops arrived, the scene was out of control. The bodies were taken to a half-built service station and hung upside down for all to see. The famous photograph was distributed showing to the world that the Duce was dead.

Piazzale Loreto, 29 April 1945, the displayed bodies of executed Italian fascists. From left to right, Nicola Bombacci, Benito Mussolini, Claretta Petacci, Alessandro Pavolini, Achille Starace
Photo: Vincenzo Carrese (1910–1981)
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

His body, first buried in an unmarked grave then stolen, recovered, and then hidden in a monastery, is now at the family crypt in Predappio in Romagna.

Sources

“Benito Mussolini: Children, Death & World War II – HISTORY | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified June 30, 2025. https://www.history.com/articles/benito-mussolini.

Citno, Robert PhD. “Death of the Duce, Benito Mussolini.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. Last modified April 27, 2020. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/death-of-benito-mussolini.

Deac, Wil. “How Did Benito Mussolini Die? The Story Behind Il Duce’s Last Moments.” Warfare History Network. Last modified March 13, 2024. https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/how-did-benito-mussolini-die-the-story-behind-il-duces-last-moments/.

Foot, John. “Benito Mussolini.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified April 24, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Benito-Mussolini.

“Mussolini, Mistress Executed by Firing Squad – UPI Archives.” UPI, April 29, 1945. https://www.upi.com/Archives/1945/04/29/Mussolini-mistress-executed-by-firing-squad/7511360114334/.

Videos

CriticalPast. “Dead Body of Benito Mussolini Lay on a Street of the Village Giulino Di Mezzegra …HD Stock Footage.” Video. YouTube, April 26, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DsnDmdVJtPE.

History Comes to Life. “Mussolini Dead, 1945 | Restored News Footage.” Video. YouTube, August 2, 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mV7Cp9v13xI.

History

Fascinating History: Hitler Learns War Is Lost (22 April 1945)

April 22, 2026 Mark Taylor Leave a comment

July 1947 photo of the rear entrance to the Führerbunker in the garden of the Reich Chancellery.
German Federal Archives, Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-V04744 / CC-BY-SA 3.0

The defeat of German forces at the Battle of the Bulge in December 1945 ended any serious attempt by German forces to launch any further major military campaigns. In March 1945 American forces captured the Ludendorff Bridge intact allowing them to enter Germany over the Rhine. Meanwhile Soviet forces were pushing in from the East and closing in on Berlin. Due to Allied air attacks on Berlin, Hitler and his staff relocated from the Reich Chancellery to the Fuhrerbunker. This underground complex served as the command center for the Third Reich in the last months of its existence.

Hitler had remained inside this complex from the beginning of January 1945 only briefly coming up on April 20, his 56th birthday, to award the Iron Cross to Hitler Youth boys. On April 22, 1945, Soviet troops began entering Berlin suburbs meeting no resistance. When informed, Hitler was enraged and denounced the army for failing him and Germany. He stated that he knew the war was lost and despite being offered a way to flee south, decided to stay. Hermann Goering, his once designated successor, now would try to seize power under a 1941 decree giving him the power believing Hitler had incapacitated himself from power. It failed and he was forced to resign and put under house arrest. Hitler would later expel him from the Nazi Party. Heinrich Himmler was also trying to negotiate with the Allies via Sweden. When the BBC reported on April 28 that this was going on, Hitler was stunned as he considered Himmler one of his most loyal persons serving under him. He ordered Himmler’s aide in the bunker, who had been captured trying to desert, to be court-martialed and shot. He ordered Himmler’s arrest, expelled him from the Nazi party, and stripped him of all his titles. The once invincible Third Reich was in its last days.

Sources

“Hitler Admits Defeat | April 22, 1945 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified February 18, 2025. Accessed April 21, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/april-22/hitler-admits-defeat.

Evans, Richard J. “Bitter End: Hitler’s Downfall and the End of the War and the Third Reich.” HistoryExtra. Last modified October 18, 2024. Accessed April 21, 2026. https://www.historyextra.com/period/second-world-war/adolf-hitler-downfall-ww2-bunker/.

Knapp, Wilfrid F. “Adolf Hitler.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified April 21, 2026. Accessed April 21, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Adolf-Hitler.

Milligan, Mark. “Führerbunker – Hitler’ Last Bunker.” HeritageDaily – Archaeology News. Last modified March 22, 2022. Accessed April 21, 2026. https://www.heritagedaily.com/2021/03/fuhrerbunker-hitlers-last-bunker/137885.

Documentaries & Videos

History Inside. “The Führerbunker After 1945 — What Really Happened?” Video. YouTube, November 24, 2025. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BwEaeH0nD8c.

Remembering History: The Great San Francisco Earthquake (18 April 1906)

April 18, 2026 Mark Taylor Leave a comment

On April 18. 1906 San Francisco would suffer a devastating earthquake resulting in a massive fire that would destroy buildings, cause many deaths, leaving a city in ruins.

Northeast View of Post & Grant Avenues, San Francisco, 18 April 1906
Public Domain (National Archives and Records Administration, ARC Identifier: 524396)

San Francisco, once a small town with a large natural bay that was once known as Yerba Buena , grew rapidly during the Gold Rush of 1849. People seeking to find wealth passed through resulting in rapid growth as businesses grew to accommodate them in every possible way. The city would expand in size to handle the new housing needs by filling in areas with sediment. Most of this area would become known locally as “South of the Slot” meaning south of Market Street called today South of Market Area (SOMA). The earthquake of 1906 would show the difference between building on bedrock and sediment.

At 5:12 am on 18 April 1906, Northern California was brought forcefully out of sleep by an earthquake that was so powerful it was felt as far away as Oregon, portions of Nevada, and even Los Angeles. Lasting only 45-60 seconds, it measured between 7.7 and 7.9 on the Richter scale, though initially it was thought higher at 8.3. The earthquake destroyed buildings, ruptured gas and water lines, buckled streets, derailed trains on tracks, and in some places opening areas of land. Ruptured gas lines in San Francisco allowed gas to escape and ignite resulting in the massive fire that would burn to city taking with it buildings and people who had survived the earthquake. The most devasted areas of the earthquake itself were built on sediment. Buildings on bedrock escaped serious damage though the fire later did destroy buildings not destroyed by the earthquake itself.

The train was standing on a siding. Beyond are the buildings of the Point Reyes Hotel, and at the extreme right the ruin of a stone store which was shaken down.Point Reyes Station, west Marin County, California. April 18, 1906
Image: G.K. Gilbert
Source: Photographs from the U.S. Geological Survey Photographic Library (CD-Rom)
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Earthquake damage was not limited to San Francisco. Cities in California such as Santa Rosa were hit hard and the entire downtown was destroyed. Train tracks in many areas were damaged and trains sitting on tracks were derailed. Areas of land were split by the earthquake leaving a scar that would remain in some areas for decades. In San Francisco, the fire generated by the igniting of gas spread causing widespread damage resulting in mandatory evacuations. The U.S. Army was called in to assist with this and with putting out the fire. The attempt to use explosives to destroy buildings that would spread fire proved to make things worse. It spread embers that started other fires. Making matters worse was the lack of water. The earthquake had ruptured the water supply, and the fire chief was killed in the earthquake. Worse due to corruption, some construction of the city’s buildings was shown to have been built poorly.

People were evacuated to parks; some were able to flee on ferries across the bay; camps were set up for those displaced by the fires. When it was over, an estimated 3,000 people died from the earthquake and subsequent fires. Thousands were left homeless and needed new homes. A large part of San Francisco was in ruins with rebuilding on a large scale needed. The problem for the city leaders was that they had to convince people San Francisco was safe so they would stay. So, a scheme was concocted to make the fires, not the earthquake, the reason for the destruction. Conveniently left out was the fact the earthquake caused the gas lines to break and caused massive destruction on areas built just on sediment or better known as landfill. The city leaders made sure, and evidence later confirmed it, to downplay the earthquake and make the fires the culprit. Rebuilding began and no new rules were put into place to make sure buildings built on landfill were safer. It would not be until late in the 20^th century that building codes would be altered to make buildings better able to handle earthquakes.

By the time of the Loma Prieta Earthquake of 1989, many new buildings were constructed to handle earthquakes such as the one I was in that day. The building swayed with the earthquake but did create some problems. Office equipment got thrown about and in a nearby office, a copier moved from one side of the room to the other, embedding itself in the wall. Chaos took place outside. Power was off and the electric buses were stopped. Traffic lights were down and the regional subway (BART) was shuttered because of the earthquake. In my building, the staff had no idea what to do so we had to fend for ourselves eventually heading down the emergency stairway to the street. There was debris on the street that fell off buildings. An old building across the street had its roof fall in. Lots of people were milling about not knowing what to do and police were not much in sight. Fortunately, I went over to the old Transbay Transit Center (now rebuilt as the Salesforce Transit Center) and caught a bus down to Daly City where I lived at the time. I would find out later that down in the Marina District buildings had collapsed and fires had broken out but fortunately the SF Fire Boat was able to assist in dousing some of the fires. The World Series at old Candlestick Park would have to be rescheduled.

Photograph of a collapsed facade of a building near Beach and Divisadero Streets in San Francisco
October 1989
Photo: J.K. Nakata, United States Geological Survey
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Sources

“San Francisco Earthquake of 1906,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified April 11, 2026, accessed April 17, 2026, https://www.britannica.com/event/San-Francisco-earthquake-of-1906.

———. “San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified May 28, 2025. Accessed April 17, 2026. https://www.history.com/articles/1906-san-francisco-earthquake.

Cherny, Robert W. “San Francisco and the Great Earthquake of 1906 | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History.” Last modified 2007. Accessed April 17, 2026. https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/essays/san-francisco-and-great-earthquake-1906.

“The 1906 San Francisco Earthquake and Fire.” https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/sf-earthquake-and-fire/.

“The Great 1906 San Francisco Earthquake.” https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/events/1906calif/18april/.

“Casualties and Damage After the 1906 Earthquake.” https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/events/1906calif/18april/casualties.php.

Videos & Documentaries

Library of Congress. “San Francisco Earthquake and Fire, April 18, 1906.” Video. YouTube, July 29, 2010. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FOwWmt9NBM0.

glamourdaze. “1906 San Francisco Earthquake (Orig 35mm Film) Restored to Life.” Video. YouTube, November 23, 2025. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tLt-Gy6FD2Y.

Fascinating Horror, “The 1906 San Francisco Earthquake | a Short Documentary | Fascinating Horror,” Video, YouTube, November 21, 2023, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkz5BE6SDMY.

History, Titanic

Titanic Chronology-Titanic Sea Trials (2 April 1912)

April 2, 2026 Mark Taylor

Titanic leaving Belfast with two guiding tugs, 2 April 1912
Robert John Welch (1859-1936), official photographer for Harland & Wolff
Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

Titanic’s sea trials, originally scheduled for 1 April at 10 am but cancelled due to adverse weather, took place at 0600 on 2 April 1912. While it reduced staying in Southhampton by one day, it provided an opportunity for the officers and crew to see how the new ship operated. 78 members of “black gang”–stokers, greasers and firemen– were aboard along with 41 other members of the crew. Both Harold Bride and Jack Phillips were aboard as well to make sure the radio equipment was working properly. Unfortunately, due to illness neither Bruce Ismay nor Lord Pirrie could attend. Among the representatives in attendance were:

Thomas Andrews and Edward Wilding of Harland and Wolff
Harold A. Sanderson of IMM
Francis Carruthers of the Board of Trade to certify the ship was working correctly and fit to carry passengers.

Crowds gathered at the banks of Belfast Lough to watch Titanic pass by. After the mooring lines were dropped, tugs assisted the ship down Belfast Lough until she reached the point where it was time to detach the tugs and move on her own power. Signals were sent from the bridge to the engine room, and the two massive engines came on to move the massive propellers. From that moment on, Titanic was moving under its own power for the very first time. Gradually the speed was worked up to 20 knots (23 mph) and the sea trials began in earnest.

Over 12 hours the ship was driven at different speeds and her turning ability was tested. Testing on how fast Titanic could stop quickly (called a “crash stop”) was done as well. This was achieved by reversing full ahead to full astern. Titanic came to a stop in 850 yards taking approximately 3 minutes and 15 seconds. Titanic covered a distance of about 80 nautical miles (92 land miles) with an average speed of 18 knots (21 mph). Titanic reached its maximum speed of slightly under 21 knots (24 mph).

Titanic went into the Irish Sea for two hours covering 40 miles then turned back home. Doing a few more maneuvers as she returned to Belfast at 7:00 p.m. The sea trials were not quite over though as Carruthers requested that both the port and starboard anchors be lowered. With that completed, he signed the certificate “Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew” certifying the ship seaworthy for one year. It was also signed by Thomas Andrews and Harold Sanderson.

Titanic returned to Belfast at around 1900 (7 pm). Carruthers as surveyor for the Board of Trade signed the document (“Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew”) certifying for 12 months the ship was seaworthy. Those not staying aboard Titanic for its 8:00 p.m. departure for Southampton were ferried to shore. Titanic would depart on time at 8:00 p.m.

It would take 28 hours to travel the 600 miles reach her destination on 4 April 1912 for the midnight tide. Time was of the essence due to one less day in Southampton to take on provisions and supplies for its departure on 10 April 1912. With five tugs assisting her, she docked at Berth 44 to prepare for her maiden voyage.

Sources

Books

Cameron, Stephen. Titanic: Belfast’s Own. Colourpoint, 2011.

Lord, Walter

–A NIGHT TO REMEMBER, Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York, New York, 1955. Multiple revisions and reprints, notably Illustrated editions (1976,1977,1978 etc.)

–THE NIGHT LIVES ON, Willian Morrow and Company, New York, New York, 1986 (First Edition)

Internet Articles

Dane, Kane. “Titanic’S Sea Trials.” Titanic-Titanic.Com. Last modified July 3, 2019. Accessed April 1, 2026. https://www.titanic-titanic.com/titanics-sea-trials/.

Payne, Brad. “Titanic’s Voyage From Belfast to Southampton April 2, 1912: Sea Trials and Delivery to Southampton.” Encyclopedia Titanica. Last modified November 1, 2021. Accessed April 1, 2026. https://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/titanic-voyage-belfast-southampton-april-2nd.html.

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History, Titanic

Titanic Chronology: Construction Begins on Titanic (31 Mar 1909)

March 31, 2026 Mark Taylor

RMS Titanic ready for launch(1911)
Public Domain (U.S. Library of Congress, digital id#cph.3a27541)

The immense size required to build the Olympic class vessels for the White Star Line by Harland & Wolff required demolishing three existing slipways on Queen’s Island in Belfast Harbor. Two new ones–the largest built at the time–would be used to construct both RMS Olympic and Titanic. Olympic had its keel laid on 16 December 1908 followed by Titanic on 31 March 1909. Since both ships were being built parallel to the other, Queen’s Island became known as “Titanic Quarter.” An enormous gantry was built to hold the crease needed during construction.

Each ship under an expedited schedule was expected to be completed in 26 months. Both ships had double bottoms of 5 feet 3 inches deep supporting 300 frames (24 and 36 inches apart and were 66 feet high) that went up to bridge deck (B deck). Steel plates provided the outer skin of both ships. Both ships were floating box girders with the keel as the backbone of the ship.

Sources

Behe, George TITANIC: SAFETY, SPEED AND SACRIFICE, Transportation Trails, Polo, IL 1997

Eaton John P. & Haas Charles, TITANIC TRIUMPH AND TRAGEDY, SECOND EDITION, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, New York, 1995 First American Edition

Lord, Walter, A NIGHT TO REMEMBER, Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York, New York, 1955. Multiple revisions and reprints, notably Illustrated editions (1976,1977,1978 etc.)

Lord, Walter, THE NIGHT LIVES ON, Willian Morrow and Company, New York, New York, 1986 (First Edition

Lynch, Don & Marshall Ken, TITANIC AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY, Madison Press Books, Toronto, Ontario Canada, 1992

Bienvenu! The French Effort to Build the Canal

Adieu, France. Hello, United States.

Welcome to May!

Titanic, historic ship, and general history news.