Category Archives: History

History

Remembering History: Hitler Commits Suicide;War in Europe Nearly Over (30 April 1945)

Leave a comment
U.S. Army newspaper Stars and Stripes announcing Hitler’s death
2 May 1945
Original source: U.S. Army
Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

On 30 April 1945, Adolf Hitler–the leader and founder of the 1,000 Reich–committed suicide with his wife Eva Braun in the underground bunker beneath the Reich Chancellery. It would lead to the end of the war in Europe on 8 May 1945 when Germany unconditionally surrendered to Allied powers.

Since the defeat of German forces in the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, it had become increasingly apparent that Allied forces had turned the tide. Germany had been pushed out of North Africa at this point, faced Allied armies in Italy, and of course on 6 June 1944 the Allied invasion of Europe had occurred. An attempt on his life was unsuccessful in July 1944 (he was saved when the briefcase with the explosive was pushed under a heavy table) but resulted in imprisonment and executions for many who were involved. Field Marshal Rommel was forced to commit suicide rather than a public court martial.

Hitler had become more erratic, and many were concerned with his mental state. After withdrawing to the underground bunker in January 1945, he met with Hermann Goering, Heinrich Himmler, and Joseph Goebbels. By 22 April 1945 though he realized the war had been lost with Soviet troops now in Berlin. On 23 April, Goering seeing that Hitler was encircled in Berlin, tried to take over as his presumed successor. Hitler stripped him of his powers and orders his arrest (this was futile since Goering surrendered himself to American forces). Himmler also had hopes of succeeding Hitler. In April, he was negotiating through a Swedish diplomat and with the Americans. When Hitler learned of this, he was stripped of his powers and his arrest ordered. Himmler tried to escape posing as an ordinary soldier but was caught and arrested. He committed suicide by taking poison.

By the end of April most of his aides and lieutenants (with some exceptions such as General Krebs) had deserted him with only Goebbels and Martin Bormann staying along. Albert Speer had declined to carry out Hitler’s orders to carry out a scorched earth policy in Berlin. Believing Germany had been unworthy of his genius and allowed themselves to be defeated, he decided to commit suicide. He married his long-time mistress Eva Braun in the early hours of 29 April 1945. He then dictated his last will and political testament that justified what he had done.  The will itself is quite short while the separate political testament that laid out a defense of his life and work, as well as appointing those who would lead the German government after his death.

In the afternoon of 30 April 1945, Hitler pointed a gun to his head (though he may have taken poison as well) and committed suicide while Eva took poison. Their bodies were burned, in accordance with his instructions, in the Chancellery garden. Goebbels transmitted a message to Admiral Karl Doenitz that Hitler had died and appointed him Reich President. Six hours later Goebbels and his wife committed suicide after poisoning their six children with cyanide.

Hitler’s death was broadcast on 1 May 1945 by Hamburg Radio. On 2 May 1945, German troops in Italy surrendered (it was signed on 29 April 1945) and Berlin surrendered to Russian Marshal Georgi Zhukov. More surrenders of German forces would follow. German forces in Denmark, the Netherlands, and northwestern Germany surrendered to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery on 4 April 1945 (effective the next day). The German Ninth and Twelve armies surrendered to U.S. forces.

Sources:

Books

Snyder, Lewis: Encyclopedia of The Third Reich, Marlowe & Company, New York, 1976

Internet

“Adolf Hitler | Biography, Rise to Power, History, and Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 30 Apr. 2024, www.britannica.com/biography/Adolf-Hitler/World-War-II.

Sullivan, Missy. “Adolf Hitler Commits Suicide in His Underground Bunker.” HISTORY, 29 Apr. 2024, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/adolf-hitler-commits-suicide.

Chen, C. Peter. “World War II Database: Your WW2 History Reference Destination.” WW2DB, ww2db.com.

 

History

Remembering History: Mussolini Caught Fleeing Italy and Executed (28 March 1945)

Leave a comment
Benito Mussolini
Public Domain

Attempting to flee Italy into Austria dressed in a Luftwaffe coat and hat, the deposed dictator of Italy–Il Duce–Benito Mussolini was caught by partisans along with his mistress Clara Petacci. The partisans executed him and Petacci, transported their bodies to Milan, and hung them upside down so that everyone (especially his supporters) could see he was dead. He ruled Italy from 1925-1943, when he was deposed and subsequently imprisoned. He was rescued by Hitler’s forces and made the puppet leader of the Italian Social Republic in northern Italy. With German troops in retreat, he hoped to avoid being captured by either British or American forces. Pictures of his body being hung upside down in Piazzale Loreto in Milan would be spread to prove that Il Duce was no more.

Sources:

Sullivan, Missy. “Benito Mussolini Executed.” HISTORY, 26 Apr. 2024, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/benito-mussolini-executed.

“Benito Mussolini.” Biography, 21 Feb. 2024, www.biography.com/political-figures/benito-mussolini.

KateL. “Death of the Duce, Benito Mussolini.” The National WWII Museum | New Orleans, 27 Apr. 2020, www.nationalww2museum.org/death-of-benito-mussolini.

History

Remembering History: Irish Rising 24 April 1916

Leave a comment
The Easter Proclamation of 1916.
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

On Easter Monday 24 April 1916 Irish nationalists along with some 1.600 followers seized government buildings in Dublin seeking the ouster of Britain from Ireland. It was planned by Patrick Pearse, Tom Clarke and others in the Irish Republican Brotherhood and was part of a larger group called Irish Volunteers. The Irish Volunteers had around 16,000 members. There was also the Irish Citizen Army which was comprised of Dublin workers who had been of the failed general strike in 1913. The small Sinn Fein party was also involved as well.

With the outbreak of war in 1914, Roger Casement and John Devoy went to Germany to seek their support for an uprising in November 1914. Casement believed that combined with Irish prisoners of war and aided by German forces, they would be able to secure the capital. The planned Irish Brigades that were to be formed never came to be and Germans did not want to commit troops openly for an Irish rebellion. However, the Germans did agree to ship arms and ammunitions to the Irish Volunteers, which had become difficult to get with wartime restrictions.

The shell of the G.P.O. on Sackville Street (later O’Connell Street), Dublin in the aftermath of the 1916 Rising.
Circa May 1916
Author: Keogh Brothers Ltd., photographers
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

On 9 April 1915, the SS Libau (a German Navy ship disguised as a Norwegian freighter), arrived in County Kerry delivering 20,000 rifles and one million rounds of ammunition and explosives. Casement was disappointed with the amount supplied and hoped to at least postpone the rising until they got more weapons and ammunition. Meanwhile the Irish Volunteers continued to amass ammunition from whatever sources they could. Though initially planned to be national in scope, the rising ended primarily in Dublin. The British had learned of the uprising and had made several arrests on April 21. Patrick Pearse and Tom Clarke went ahead with their plans and seized the Dublin General Post Office and other points in the Dublin City Center. Pearse read a proclamation announcing the birth of the Irish nation. British troops were sent in to put down the rebellion, which began a week-long battle in the streets between the two. Dublin was paralyzed during this time. British artillery was used against the rebels and forced their capitulation in the end.

All of the leaders of the Easter Rising were court-martialed and executed. The uprising itself was not generally supported by most Irish. However, the executions and arrest of anyone thought to have been involved with the rebellion angered many along with the imposition of martial law turned the leaders into martyrs. Instead of stamping out the rebellion, the British response only fueled the cause for many to want an Irish free state (sounds familiar to those who study the American Revolution).

Aftermath

In 1919, the Irish Republican Army began a guerilla war against the British in Ireland. A cease fire was called in July 1921 and a treaty was signed in 1921. The treaty established the Irish Free State as a self-governing nation of the British commonwealth. However,  the treaty allowed for an opt-out provision and the six northern counties decided to stay with the United Kingdom. This was not wholly popular with many in the Irish leadership (and led to internal strife and killings). It was not until Easter Monday in 1949 that the Republic of Ireland was fully declared (except for the northern counties that had opted out).

Sources:

History, Titanic

Olympic Departure Delayed Over Lifeboats (24 April 1912)

Leave a comment
RMS Olympic Arrives In New York on Maiden Voyage, 21 June 1911
Source: U.S. Library of Commerce/Wikimedia Commons
Public Domain

In the wake of the Titanic sinking, all passenger ships were equipped with lifeboats for everyone aboard. Olympic, like her sister ship, did not have enough lifeboats but they were quickly added for her upcoming departure from Southampton on 24 April 1912. 40 collapsible lifeboats (all second-hand) had come from troopships. However, there was concern amongst the crew that these lifeboats were not seaworthy.  A request sent by crewman that they should be replaced by wooden lifeboats was declined by White Star which said that it was impossible to do that and they had passed as seaworthy by the Board of Trade inspector.

New lifeboats being loaded on RMS Olympic, Titanic’s sister-ship
Circa 22 April 1912-30 April 1912
Author Unknown
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Not convinced of this, 284 firemen went on strike delaying the departure. Non-union crew were hired from Southampton and from Liverpool to make up the difference. On 25 April 1912, representatives of the strikers witnessed a test of four of the collapsible boats. One was found unseaworthy. The representatives said they would recommend the strikers return to work as a result. A separate objection about the non-union workers who were hired came up as an issue. White Star refused to fire them. This resulted in 54 crewmembers leaving the ship in protest causing the cancellation of the sailing. Later they would be charged and convicted of mutiny, but no punishment was awarded due to the circumstances. White Star Line hired them back in end fearing a public backlash in support of the strikers. Olympic would sail for New York on 15 May 1912.

 

Sources:

“April 1912: Olympic’s Canceled Sailing.” Encyclopedia Titanica Message Board, 25 Apr. 2002, www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/community/threads/april-1912-olympics-canceled-sailing.3699.

Edwards, John. “The Olympic Mutiny – Ocean Liners Magazine.” Ocean Liners Magazine, 3 May 2020, oceanlinersmagazine.com/2020/05/03/olympic-mutiny-2.

“RMS Olympic.” Wikipedia, 24 Apr. 2024, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RMS_Olympic#cite_note-Brewster78-68.

 

History, Religion

Passover Begins Today at Sundown

Leave a comment
The Israelites Leaving Egypt, 1828/1830 by David Roberts (1796-1864)
Public Domain(Wikipedia)

Passover is an eight day festival celebrated in the spring between the 15th through 22 during the Hebrew month of Nissan. Passover commemorates the emancipation of the Israelites from slavery in ancient Egypt. The first two and last two days are considered holidays. On those days holiday meals are served and observant Jews do not work or drive on those days (they also cannot write and even switch on/off electric devices though exception is made for cooking and carrying food outdoors.) The middle four days are called intermediate days and most forms of work are permitted.

A very important way Jews recall the Exodus is that they cannot eat or have an form of leavened bread (and that includes any food or drink that contains wheat, barley, oats, spelt or derivatives of it). That includes a lot of foods from breads, pastas, cookies and cakes, alcohol and soda. Most processed or industrial made foods are thus not allowed unless they have been certified for Passover by a rabbinical authority. It is not uncommon to see certain sodas in heavy Jewish areas reconfigured for the Passover season (such as Coke using real sugar and nothing that is derived from leavened bread in its making).  

Observe the month of Aviv and celebrate the Passover of the Lord your God, because in the month of Aviv he brought you out of Egypt by night. Sacrifice as the Passover to the Lord your God an animal from your flock or herd at the place the Lord will choose as a dwelling for his Name. Do not eat it with bread made with yeast, but for seven days eat unleavened bread, the bread of affliction, because you left Egypt in haste—so that all the days of your life you may remember the time of your departure from Egypt. Let no yeast be found in your possession in all your land for seven days. Do not let any of the meat you sacrifice on the evening of the first day remain until morning. (Deuteronomy, 16:1-4)

 
Festive Seder table with wine, matza and Seder plate.
Image credit: Gilabrand via Wiikimedia Commons

The most important part of Passover is the Seder. It is a fifteen step tradition that is family oriented and packed with rituals for the feast. The most important points of the Seder are eating matzah, bitter herbs(to commemorate the slavery under the Egyptians),drinking wine or grape juice to commemorate their freedom, and most importantly reciting from the Haggadah. The Haggadah is the liturgy of the Exodus from Egypt and the duty of every family to recite the story so the next generation never forgets what Passover means to them.

Hear, O Israel! The LORD is our God, the LORD alone! Therefore, you shall love the LORD, your God, with your whole heart, and with your whole being, and with your whole strength. Take to heart these words which I command you today. Keep repeating them to your children. Recite them when you are at home and when you are away, when you lie down and when you get up. Bind them on your arm as a sign and let them be as a pendant on your forehead. Write them on the doorposts of your houses and on your gates. (Deuteronomy 6:1-9)

Moses with the Tables of the Law, circa 1624
Guido Reni (1575–1642)
Galleria Borghese, Rome
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

 

  For Further Information:

 

 

History

Remembering History: Hitler Learns War Is Lost (22 April 1945)

Leave a comment

Berlin June 1945 (Carl Weinrother 1898–1976)
German Federal Archives via Wikimedia Commons

By April 1945, victories by Allied and Russian forces had reduced the once formidable German state to a shadow of its former self. Due to increased Allied air attacks on Berlin, Hitler had relocated his headquarters from the Reich Chancellery to the Fuhrerbunker, an underground complex that would serve as the command center for the remnants of the Third Reich earlier in the year. 19th April saw the Soviet Army mobilize its troops to encircle Berlin. Hitler had gone above on 20 April 1945, his 56th birthday, to award the Iron Cross to boys from the Hitler Youth.

It was on 22 April 1945 that Hitler, in an afternoon meeting, learned that Soviets were entering the northern suburbs of Berlin meeting no resistance. It enraged Hitler, who denounced the Army, and made him realize the war was lost. Hitler decided to stay in Berlin rather than flee south.

Sources:

Britannica.com
HeritageDaily.com
History.com

History, Titanic

U.S. Senate Hearing into Titanic Sinking Begins (20 April 1912)

Leave a comment

Senator William Alden Smith of Michigan
Unknown date (between 1905 and 1945)
Public Domain

The shocking news of the Titanic sinking had people on both sides of the Atlantic wanting an inquiry into how it happened. The United States would be the first to do so, but not without criticism from the British. U.S. Senator William Alden Smith, a Republican from Michigan, believed that rapid action was needed. He was also concerned that many of the surviving witnesses aboard Carpathia would disperse and head home. This led to his proposal on 17 April 1912 that an official inquiry be held on the sinking. President Taft concurred having lost his good friend and military advisor Archibald Butt in the sinking. Taft ordered a U.S. naval escort for Carpathia as well.

Smith along with fellow subcommittee member Francis G. Newlands (and other officials) quickly traveled to New York by train in order to meet Carpathia when it docked on 18 April in the evening. Smith, Newlands, and the other officials boarded Carpathia and served subpoenas upon J. Bruce Ismay and all the surviving officers requiring them to stay in the U.S. for the hearings which started the next day in New York. Survivors and other witnesses who had knowledge would also testify as well. The hearings would begin at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York and later be moved to Washington D.C. at the Russell Senate Office Building. The hearings, with many recesses in-between, would run for 18 days till May 25, 1912.

Sketch of J. Bruce Ismay giving testimony before U.S. Senate Titanic inquiry.
Public Domain (via Wikipedia)

Witnesses who attended the United States Senate inquiry into the sinking of the RMS Titanic
Author: Louis Grant, The Graphic, 11 May 1912
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

The subcommittee was composed of seven senators (three Republicans and three Democrats) with Smith as chair. The composition was carefully chosen to include the various wings of the two parties. Members of the committee asked questions, but Smith personally handled the questioning of the chief witnesses. This led to friction within the committee as some felt he was trying to seize the limelight. The result was some members would only infrequently attend the hearings as there was little for them to do. Harsher criticism came from the British press and also the British government as well. Smith was not portrayed well and was called an opportunist. The British government (and the press as well) said the U.S. had no jurisdiction since this was a British ship. This conveniently forgot that White Star Line was owned by an American, J.P. Morgan. The British would hold their own inquiry much later after the American one had concluded.

Sources

Books

Behe, George TITANIC: SAFETY, SPEED AND SACRIFICE, Transportation Trails, Polo, IL 1997

Eaton John P. & Haas Charles, TITANIC TRIUMPH AND TRAGEDY, SECOND EDITION, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, New York, 1995 First American Edition

Lord, Walter, A NIGHT TO REMEMBER, Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York, New York, 1955. Multiple revisions and reprints, notably Illustrated editions (1976,1977,1978 etc)

Lord, Walter, THE NIGHT LIVES ON, Willian Morrow and Company, New York, New York, 1986 (First Edition)

Lynch, Don & Marshall Ken, TITANIC AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY, Madison Press Books, Toronto, Ontario Canada, 1992

Wade, Wyn Craig. THE TITANIC: END OF A DREAM. Penguin Mass Market, 1992.

Internet

 Encyclopedia Britannica, www.britannica.com/search?query=Titanic.

“Encyclopedia Titanica.” www.encyclopedia-titanica.org.

“The Titanic: Sinking and Facts | HISTORY.” HISTORY, 12 Mar. 2024, www.history.com/topics/early-20th-century-us/titanic

Titanic Inquiry Project – Main Page. www.titanicinquiry.org.

 

History, Titanic

Carpathia Arrives In New York (18 April 1912)

Leave a comment

Titanic survivors aboard Carpathia.
U.S. Library of Congress, digital id: cph 3b04287
Public Domain

Since the sinking of the Titanic, lingering questions as to who survived and who died were the subject of much speculation. Captain Arthur Rostron of the Carpathia had kept a media blackout refusing to answer any messages. J. Bruce Ismay was sequestered in a cabin and stayed there for the entire voyage back to New York. He sent a message to the New York office of the White Star Line informing of the sinking. Except for survivors sending their own messages out, no one really knew who had lived or died when Carpathia finally arrived on a rainy Thursday evening on 18 April 1912.

News reporters had gathered in boats with megaphones yelling to people aboard they would pay for their survivor accounts. One enterprising reporter did manage to get aboard and get some quick interviews. He tossed the notes inside a cigar box lined with champagne corks to a Hearst editor in a tugboat. It would be rushed back to the New York World for a special evening edition. Meanwhile in the pier sheds there were some 1,000 people-mainly friends and relatives-gathered there. J.P. Morgan Jr. was there along with members of the Widener and Thayer families who had been on the special trains that had been heading north to Halifax to greet the survivors there. There was some crying heard. As Carpathia slowly made her way down the battery, it was estimated close to 10,000 people were watching, mostly in silence, as she passed. Some numbers are higher at 40,000.

Crowd Awaiting Survivors of Titanic, 18 April 1912
U.S. Library of Congress,Bain Collection, Control #ggb2004010347
Public Domain

Carpathia would make a slight detour to the White Star dock to drop off her lifeboats. It was a stunning moment when you realize that those lifeboats, along with the flotsam and jetsam, were all that remained of the once proud RMS Titanic. Although arriving in New York at 8:30 pm, the delay to unload the lifeboats along with the rain and darkness meant Carpathia did not dock at Pier 54 until after 9 pm. The gangway went down at 9:25 pm. There were a large detachment of doctors, nurses, nuns, and priests ready to board along with stretchers. According to one report, three women did not want to wait for the gangway to come down and climbed down ladders from the ship. The Salvation Army was also there to render assistance as well.

Many men removed their hats in respect when the gangway went down. Many survivors had little clothing, just what they had on when they left Titanic, and wore a hodge-podge of whatever they could get on Carpathia. Two women were apparently hysterical (one report said violent and deranged). Those who had relatives waiting were greeted by them. Relief for those who had no one was done by the Women’s Relief Committee, the Travelers Aid Society of New York, the Council of Jewish women and many more. Transportation was provided to shelters provided by these groups. Those who had relatives in New York quickly left while those who had relatives within the U.S. stayed for a few days to arrange transportation. The Pennsylvania Railroad provided a special free train to take survivors to Philadelphia. The surviving crew members would be taken to the Red Star Line steamer SS Lapland and housed there temporarily in passenger cabins.

Meanwhile other interesting parties boarded the Carpathia that night. They were U.S. Senators William Alden Smith, Francis G. Newlands, and others armed with subpoenas to serve on J. Bruce Ismay, as well as the surviving officers and crew of Titanic. An inquiry was about to begin, and they wanted to make sure they would be all be there for it the following day at the Waldorf Astoria in New York.

Sources:

Books

Behe, George TITANIC: SAFETY, SPEED AND SACRIFICE, Transportation Trails, Polo, IL 1997

Eaton John P. & Haas Charles, TITANIC TRIUMPH AND TRAGEDY, SECOND EDITION, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, New York, 1995 First American Edition

Lord, Walter, A NIGHT TO REMEMBER, Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York, New York, 1955. Multiple revisions and reprints, notably Illustrated editions (1976,1977,1978 etc)

Lord, Walter, THE NIGHT LIVES ON, Willian Morrow and Company, New York, New York, 1986 (First Edition)

Lynch, Don & Marshall Ken, TITANIC AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY, Madison Press Books, Toronto, Ontario Canada, 1992

Internet

 Encyclopedia Britannica, www.britannica.com/search?query=Titanic.

“Encyclopedia Titanica.” www.encyclopedia-titanica.org.

“The Titanic: Sinking and Facts | HISTORY.” HISTORY, 12 Mar. 2024, www.history.com/topics/early-20th-century-us/titanic

History

The Great San Francisco Earthquake (18 April 1906)

Leave a comment

Northeast View of Post & Grant Avenues, San Francisco, 18 April 1906
Public Domain (National Archives and Records Administration, ARC Identifier: 524396)

At 5:12 a.m. on 18 April 1906, Northern California was awakened by an earthquake that is now considered one of the most significant of all time. The epicenter was near San Francisco and the shaking lasted between 45-60 seconds. It was so powerful that it was felt from southern Oregon to Los Angeles and as far east as central Nevada. The intensity showed the clear difference between bedrock and sediment (or land filled) geology. Those that got the strongest shaking were in sediment filled areas rather than bedrock. Which explains why in San Francisco the damage was the most severe in those areas. Specifically it is the area called SOMA (South of Market or the old term south of the slot)where the greatest damage resulted. That area used to be part of San Francisco Bay but was filled in for more housing, commercial, and industrial uses. Houses and buildings were damaged or collapsed.

The train was standing on a siding. Beyond are the buildings of the Point Reyes Hotel, and at the extreme right the ruin of a stone store which was shaken down.Point Reyes Station, west Marin County, California. April 18, 1906
Image: G.K. Gilbert
Source: Photographs from the U.S. Geological Survey Photographic Library (CD-Rom)
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Although San Francisco got a significant amount of damage, other areas were likewise damaged. Cities like Santa Rosa got hit hard(the entire downtown was destroyed) and many in the countryside suffered building or infrastructure damage as well. The magnitude of the quake was originally thought to be around 8.3 on the Richter scale. However others argue it was between 7.7 and 7.9 based on new interpretations of earthquake data. However you measure it, the earthquake was one of the most severe in the modern era. The earthquake not only destroyed buildings, injured scores and killing 3,000 (estimated) but caused the fires that made it much worse with water supply being severely limited by broken pipes. City leaders would claim later, to ensure people would come back to the city, that San Francisco was not destroyed by the earthquake but the fires. The truth was (and later researchers would learn this)how extensive the earthquake had been to San Francisco. The fires were a direct result of the earthquake and made a bad situation that much worse. The Army used dynamite to blow up areas to block fires. This usually is a good tactic to blow up ground to create firebreaks. This made it much worse since no one thought about the possibility of flying embers from blown up buildings causing more fires. Which is what happened and made it that much worse.

Today we look back at the old pictures but not really appreciate the total magnitude of the disaster. San Francisco rebuilt but continued its old ways for a long time. Buildings went up in the very areas worst hit by the earthquake with little attention to earthquake safety. But by the late 20th century that had changed as city leaders realized how damaging another 1906 type of quake would be to a modern city. New ordinances were passed and many of the taller buildings in San Francisco today in the Financial District were constructed to handle earthquakes.

Photograph of a collapsed facade of a building near Beach and Divisadero Streets in San Francisco October 1989
Photo: J.K. Nakata, United States Geological Survey
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

I learned this from being in one such building during the Loma Prieta Earthquake (17 Oct 1989 at 5:07pm). That earthquake was centered near Santa Cruz and measured 6.9, much less powerful than 1906. But it caused a lot of damage and some loss of life as well. The building I was in (since it is on landfill) was built to sway with the earthquake rather than remain locked in place. It was a weird experience to feel the building rock as it did but it survived just fine while a building across the street and built long before that standard had its top cave in. That building had to be torn down.

Some things did stay the same as 1906. There was little official guidance, mass transit was down, lots of cars stuck in traffic, and plenty of people milling about trying to figure out how to get home. I was lucky as I took a SamTrans bus to Daly City from the old Transbay Terminal. It was long bus ride that took close to 3 hours but I was grateful that bus was running. Those living in the East Bay would have to wait a good long while for BART to run again. And those that watched the World Series that night saw an earthquake live at old Candlestick Park.

Additional Information

The Great 1906 San Francisco Earthquake (USGS)
San Francisco Earthquake, 1906(National Archives)
New S.F. archive includes stunning photos from 1906 quake(S.F. Chronicle,17 April 2015)
San Francisco earthquake and fire, April 18, 1906 (Library of Congress) 1906 film that shows the damage.
The 1906 San Francisco Earthquake and Fire (Bancroft Library Online Exhibit)

History, Titanic

White Star Line Hires Ships To Retrieve Bodies (16-17 April 1912)

Leave a comment

Titanic lost: Belfast Telegraph front page on 16 April 1912
Source: Belfast Telegraph

As the world awaits news of who survived Titanic, the White Star Line decides to hire ships to go out and retrieve bodies. Reports of bodies floating in the Atlantic had been reported and White Star wanted to retrieve them as quickly as possible for a number of practical reasons. Ocean currents would eventually move them out of the area, so getting them retrieved as soon as possible would allow families to lay them to rest. Another reason for speed was that sea creatures and birds would start consuming the bodies making identification difficult as well. The cable ship Mackay Bennett was the first ship hired by White Star. Three other ships would be hired as well: Minia (a cable ship), Montmagny (lighthouse supply ship), and the sealing vessel Algerine.

CS Mackay Bennett (circa 1884)
Artist Unknown
Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

Each ship would carry the necessary supplies to retrieve and embalm the bodies. The Mackay Bennett emptied itself of its normal stores in Halifax, Nova Scotia and brought aboard supplies for its new mission:

  • Embalming supplies and coffins (100)
  • Chief embalmer of John Snow & Co., John R. Snow Jr.
  • 100 tons of ice to store the bodies
  • Canon Kenneth Hind of All Saints Cathedral, Halifax

Mackay Bennett left Halifax at 12:28 pm on 17 April 1912. Due to heavy fog and rough seas, it would take four days to reach where Titanic sank. They began recovery at 0600 on 20 April. Bodies were manually recovered by skiffs and brought back to the ship. They recovered 51 bodies but realized they did not have enough embalming supplies on hand. Since the laws at the time required bodies to be embalmed before unloading from ships docking in a Canadian port, they followed a general procedure:

  • First class passengers were embalmed and placed in coffins.
  • Second class passengers embalmed but wrapped in canvas.
  • Third class, crew, and bodies that were too decomposed or disfigured were buried at sea.
  • Bodies that were brought back were either transported by relatives to their final resting place or interred in Halifax, Nova Scotia.

Back in Halifax John Henry Barnstead, the Registrar of Vital Statistics, developed a system of identifying the bodies and protect personal possessions of the deceased. Since Halifax had direct rail and steamship connections, this made it easier for families of victims to travel to Halifax and identify the bodies. A large temporary morgue was set up using a local curling rink and undertakers from all over the area were asked to assist. Many families did decide to transport the bodies back to their hometowns in the United States or in Europe. Unclaimed or unidentified bodies would be interred in Halifax. 150 bodies would eventually be interred in Halifax cemeteries. The largest number are in the Fairview Lawn Cemetery followed by the nearby Mount Olivet and Baron de Hirsch cemeteries.

Titanic Grave markers at Fairview Cemetery Halifax N.S
William B. Grice (Wikimedia)

Bodies were still being reported in May. The Oceanic found three bodies in Titanic’s Collapsible A over two hundred miles from the sinking. When Carpathia had arrived, Fifth Officer Harold Lowe and other crewmembers removed the survivors but left three dead bodies aboard. Oceanic retrieved their bodies and then buried them at sea. On 22 May the Algerine found the body of steward James McGrady. His body was brought back to Halifax and buried in June at the Fairview Lawn Cemetery.

In the end only 333 bodies were recovered, a small number compared to the over 1,500 victims. Currents quickly moved bodies hundreds of miles making their recovery difficult. Life jackets will eventually disintegrate allowing bodies to sink or drift further away. Most who lost family, friends, and relatives had no body to bury since it was never recovered.

Sources

Books

Behe, George TITANIC: SAFETY, SPEED AND SACRIFICE, Transportation Trails, Polo, IL 1997

Eaton John P. & Haas Charles, TITANIC TRIUMPH AND TRAGEDY, SECOND EDITION, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, New York, 1995 First American Edition

Lord, Walter, A NIGHT TO REMEMBER, Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York, New York, 1955. Multiple revisions and reprints, notably Illustrated editions (1976,1977,1978 etc)

Lord, Walter, THE NIGHT LIVES ON, Willian Morrow and Company, New York, New York, 1986 (First Edition)

Lynch, Don & Marshall Ken, TITANIC AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY, Madison Press Books, Toronto, Ontario Canada, 1992

Internet

 Encyclopedia Britannica, www.britannica.com/search?query=Titanic.

“Encyclopedia Titanica.” www.encyclopedia-titanica.org.

“The Titanic: Sinking and Facts | HISTORY.” HISTORY, 12 Mar. 2024, www.history.com/topics/early-20th-century-us/titanic.