On 8 Sep 1941, German forces began their siege of Leningrad that would last 872 days making it one of the most grueling sieges in modern warfare.
The fire of anti-aircraft guns deployed in the neighborhood of St. Isaac’s cathedral during the defense of Leningrad (now called St. Petersburg, its pre-Soviet name) in 1941. Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Leningrad, known previously as St. Petersburg and the Russian capital before the Communist Revolution of 1918, was a major industrial center. As the second largest Russian city, it was a strategic city for the Germans to conquer. When war started with Germany in 1941, most of the industrial plants and their workers were relocated to safer areas to prevent capture. However, this left approximately two million to face the rapidly moving German army. Everyone from old to young was conscripted to build anti-tank fortifications around the city. In July, the railway to Moscow was cut off and German forces began besieging the outer fortifications. By September 8, they were outside the city but unable to enter due to both the fortifications and about 200,000 Red Army soldiers. German bombers destroyed warehouses and other infrastructure making holding out more difficult. With all highways and rail lines cut off, the city was encircled with Finnish forces supporting the Germans.
Food had to be carefully rationed with most eating one slice of bread a day causing widespread starvation. And it was one of the coldest winters on record. Many still worked to build arms to defeat the Germans despite the intense deprivations of both warmth and food. Everything that could be eaten –cats and dogs, animals from the city zoo, wallpaper paste, leather boiled to make edible jelly–was used. Various plants, grasses, and even weeds were consumed to add vitamins. And, taking a page from the unfortunate Donner Party, many started cannibalizing the dead as well. This was such a major issue that the police department had to create a special unit to handle this. Some supplies were able to be brought over Lake Ladoga, but the amounts were small and unable to alleviate the situation. Some evacuations of elderly and children were able to be done, but most starved or died. Thankfully by June 1943, Soviet forces were able to break the German blockade and establish a better supply line to Lake Ladoga.
This helped the inhabitants and with an oil pipeline and electricity being supplied as well during the siege, things were better than at the outset. Also, with spring there came the use of land to grow produce that would help many as well. Finally, by January 1944 the German Army was forced to retreat ending the siege. However, the death toll was staggering with at least one million dead. It would not be until the 1960’s when the population reached pre-siege levels of three million. Those who survived were all awarded the Order of Lenin. Today the city has fully recovered and there is no trace of this dark period in its history. It is a very popular tourist destination not only for Russians but others as well. The city is very spread out requiring the use of cars for even the shortest of destinations.
Saint Petersburg, Russia. View from the visitor’s gallery at the Colonnade of the St. Isaac’s Cathedral. 2012 A.Savin via Wikimedia Commons
Interesting Information
An old travel guide before 1918, advised people to pack warm clothing for the nights. While spring and summer days are often pleasant, cool nighttime temperatures require warm clothing. Raingear is recommended as well. As for the winter, bring lots of warm clothing. Also, it advised people to make sure you knew there was a significant calendar change. Russia, until 1918, used the Julian calendar. And that meant you needed to subtract 13 days for the correct date in old Russia when you crossed the border. Christmas was not on December 25th, but on January 6. Today that is not a problem since Russia now uses the Gregorian, but the other advice is still sound. And to avoid getting into vodka challenges especially if it involves lots of caviar as well.
In history circles, there is a sort of a trivia game that is played over the city name. The city has had three names. It was St. Petersburg from 1703 to 1914. Because of its German sounding name, it was changed to Petrograd in 1914. Up until the Communist Revolution of 1918, the city was the cultural center as well as the capital of Russia. After that, the capital was moved to Moscow primarily to prevent any invasion that would take down the government. When Lenin died in 1924, the city was again renamed to Leningrad. After the fall of Communism, in 1991 the citizens decided in a referendum to restore the original name to St. Petersburg. So, the game is this: what is the real name of the old Russian capital? Is it St. Petersburg, Petrograd, or Leningrad? To make it tougher, sometimes a year is used: “What was the name of the former Russian capital in 1922 (or 1941)? The Jeopardy answer, if no year is specified, is all three.
On 23 August 1939 it was announced that Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union had signed a nonaggression treaty. The announcement was a complete surprise since Hitler had both in his writings and public speaking had denounced Communism and the Soviet Union. So why did this happen and what were its effects? Let’s find out.
Map of Europe and Western Asia in 1923 after World War I. Image via Wikimedia Commons
Both Germany and Russia had suffered in World War I. Germany was defeated by the Allies, lost its monarchy and colonial territories, and was ordered to pay huge reparations per the Versailles Treaty. Russia had gotten into the war to protect Serbia but was ill-equipped for a major war due to its limited resources and industrial capability. It suffered humiliating defeats during the war and its people suffered with reduced goods and services. This fed to unrest which led to Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate and allow a more democratic government to take over. Alas, that did not last as it continued in the war despite its unpopularity. This allowed the Communists, led by Lenin (who had been sent back to the country by Germany to foment chaos) to seize power and overturn the entire social and political structure of the country. In Germany, after a decade of vacillating leadership and discontent over inflation and Germany’s loss of status in the world, Adolf Hitler would lead the Nazi Party to victory after he was given the chancellorship in 1933. Both Germany and Russia (now called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or just Soviet Union), were led by authoritarian governments that ruled with an iron fist.
The Soviet Union in its early days sought a promised world-wide revolution that never happened, causing its leader Lenin and later Stalin to realize that building up the country first was needed before a worldwide revolution. Hitler and the Nazi’s had a different view as they wanted to expand their country and restore pride in Germany. A new Germany was being formed with a clear ideology; they were the people that would lead to change Europe and the World. By 1939, Germany was making its moves in Europe by invading Czechoslovakia. In 1938, they demanded and got a piece of Czechoslovakia when Britain and France, desperate to avoid war, forced Czechoslovakia to accept the deal breaking a treaty they had signed to defend it. Germany also annexed Austria that year as well uniting both countries. The invasion of Czechoslovakia told Britain and France that Hitler would not honor his agreements.
On the Russian side, Stalin had instituted programs to industrialize the country, but his brutal dictatorship had resulted in people being denounced, tried, and either imprisoned for years or executed. A climate of fear existed and not knowing whether someone had denounced you in secret made you wonder if you would come home that night. The Great Purge of 1936-1938 saw its officer corps depleted. The German Gestapo, feeding on Stalin’s paranoia, used the situation to use create documents that implicated many in the officer corps but also in government as well. The era became known for its show trials where the accused would be brought in, tried of a crime they didn’t commit, and faced imprisonment or death depending on the severity of the charge. Those who had become important members of government or close to Stalin that had been purged would be removed from the public record as well. Photos were retouched to show they were no longer walking, standing, or near Stalin or other people.
Stalin looked at expanding the Soviet Union by stealth or force into Europe. He hoped the war between the European nations would weaken them so he could achieve his aims. Poland was, like Czechoslovakia a means to an end for both powers. Germany’s racial theory held the Polish people were, like the Jews, to be eliminated. For all the bad reasons, both Hitler and Stalin would come to terms and agree to a treaty that divided Poland into two spheres. Secret protocols to the pact indicated the demarcation lines and other things as well. The countries of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland were secretly divided up as well giving both Germany and the Soviet Union access to raw materials. This allowed Hitler to invade Poland in September. Russia would move to claim its share of Poland, which the German military was not quite happy about since in some areas they had to withdraw back to the lines agreed to in the secret protocols.
“Nothing more unbelievable could be imagined. Astonishment and skepticism turned quickly to consternation and alarm”. (Gunther, John (1940). Inside Europe. New York: Harper & Brothers.)
Stalin and Ribbentrop shaking hands over the newly signed pact between Germany and Soviet Union. August 23,1939 Source: German Federal Archive
The news of the agreement, popularly called the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, stunned the world. No one expected that Hitler would make a deal with Stalin. There had been some leaks suggesting it, but no one thought it credible that this would occur. The British and French had been in negotiations with the Soviets for months and were blindsided. Soviet propaganda heralded the agreement while others questioned secret protocols that were signed. Italy and the U.S. were given some limited information about them, but the full details were not disclosed. Soviet propaganda downplayed the previous attacks on Germany and Molotov himself made it clear they harbored no ill will. Nazi propaganda also had to do an about face as well. The Nazi’s had shut down the German Communist Party, imprisoned its leaders, and shut down its press. And they had nothing good to say about the Soviet Union either. Now they had to say everything was good with the hated Communist state.
Meanwhile the Baltic States began to worry how the rumored secret protocols would soon impact them. British and French attempts to meet with the Soviet negotiator over the agreement were rebuffed. Hitler said that with the treaty in place Britain should recognize Germany’s claims over Poland since it changed the situation from that of World War I. Instead, and to the German leader’s surprise, Britain announced a defense pact with Poland on 25 August 1939. Needless to say, Poland now realized it was being divided up by the two powers and war was coming.
How Central Europe would be divided up according the agreement. And what actually happened before Germany broke the treaty and attacked the Soviet Union. Author: Peter Hanula via Wikimedia Commons
The British and French governments had reached their end with Hitler; they no longer trusted him. In both countries the appeasement supporters diminished as reality set in that war was most certainly coming now with Germany. Neville Chamberlain, the chief supporter of the Munich Agreement a year before to avoid war, now realized his failure. He made it clear to Germany it would stand by Britain’s agreement to defend Poland. Hitler considered Chamberlain a fool and ordered the military to invade Poland as planned. The only question the Germans really had was whether those powers would do anything while they were attacking Poland. Both the British and French declared war on Germany when it invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 but took no immediate military action. It was a mistake that would prove costly for both countries later.
Aftermath
Stalin gambled that Hitler would focus on Europe and not on Russia. His goal was to build up the Soviet Union for war or to move in when his forces had subverted the country they wanted to take. Like many (including the German military high command) a two-front war was to be avoided. All of that went out of the window when Hitler decided he would invade Russia in 1941 under Operation Barbarossa. The goal of the operation was to remove and execute the leadership of Russia, take control of Russia, and make it a place for German resettlement. Stalin was not prepared for war and had discounted warnings Germany was about to invade as an attempt to get Russia to scuttle the treaty. Germany got the initial success and took territory, easily defeating the military forces it encountered. However, they never took Moscow despite being twenty miles from it. And as time went on, faced more stiffer resistance and a military helped by American military equipment sent to help Russia defeat Hitler.
A vicious war broke out between the German and Russian forces creating now an Eastern Front that began to demand more resources than initially thought needed. The Soviet Union was getting supplies from the Allies using the dangerous North Atlantic to Murmansk route. And when the Allies landed in Europe in June 1944, this caused even more strain already on the limited resources Germany had. The Soviet troops started pushing back and ultimately forced Germany into retreat and ultimately to Berlin in 1945 where Hitler would commit suicide rather than be captured.
Stalin did achieve his war aims in the end. Now with their troops in Poland and throughout Central Europe in countries they had liberated from Nazi rule, they would undermine the return of its former governments and subvert their political structure to ensure Communists would take charge. Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia all came to be controlled by the Soviet Union through governments that were installed and supported by them. It gave them access to sources of raw materials they had not had before and created a buffer around Russia. For people that had survived living under the yoke of Nazi controlled governments, it was simply swapping out one ideology for another with the same type of tyranny running things. Yugoslavia under Tito did break away from Moscow (he was fiercely independent but Communist) but that was about it.
The Iron Curtain, in black. Countries to the East of it are noted in Red and Warsaw Pact countries. NATO countries are blue, neutral states gray. Green depicts Yugoslavia which broke away from Moscow in 1948. Albania also had its own split starting in 1961 and in 1968 withdrew from the Pact but remained Communist. While a small part of Austria was occupied by the Soviet Union from 1945-1955, it did not join the Warsaw Pact and declared its neutrality. The small black dot in East Germany indicates West Berlin which was circled with the infamous Berlin Wall starting in 1961. Image: Sémhur via Wikimedia Commons
Until the fall of Communism began in 1991, these countries would remain either directly or indirectly controlled by Moscow through their governments. Some countries such as Czechoslovakia would break up (Czech Republic and Slovakia) after Communism ended. Yugoslavia would also break up as well into Bosnia, Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Romania had the most violent uprising (Poland had strikes that forced out the Communists) that ended with its leader being executed in the end. East Germany would be unified with West Germany ending the separation that had begun in 1945.
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Rare Agfacolor photo (invention from 1936) dated August 1944 taken in Warsaw, Poland in the Old Town Market Place during Warsaw Uprising in August 1944 Ewa Faryaszewska (1920-1944) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
On 1 Aug 1944 Poles in Warsaw launched a major uprising against the Nazi occupation. The Soviet Army had advanced to the Vistula River on the eastern suburb of Warsaw prompting the revolt. Polish General Tadeusz Bor-Komorowski, commander of the Home Army (an underground resistance group of around 40,000), had ties to the government-in-exile in London, which was anti-communist. The hope was to gain at least partial control of Warsaw before the Soviets arrived.
By this time, the German Army had been pushed back considerably from its gains in Russia. And their taking Warsaw seemed likely. Despite this, Adolf Hitler ordered that the uprising be suppressed at all costs. The Nazi SS directed the defense force and engaged in brutal street fighting. The Polish Home Army fought back hard despite having limited supplies and no support from the Soviet Army (which caused friction between Poland and the Soviet Union for years).
The Red Army did capture several bridgeheads across the Vistula River in preparation to take Warsaw but held back doing anything more. Only under intense pressure from British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and American President Franklin Roosevelt did Stalin relent and allow Allies to drop supplies to the rebels. But it was too late as by that time, both the rebels and the citizens ran out of food, supplies, and medical supplies. The uprising came to an end on 2 October when the remaining forces surrendered. The revolt had lasted 63 days but the cost for both sides was high. An estimated three-fourths of the Home Army died along with 200,000 civilians. The Germans suffered 10,000 dead, 9,000 wounded, and 7,000 missing. In keeping with their dislike of the Polish people (they were seen as just a notch above the Jews but were slated for either slavery or death by the Nazis) the survivors were deported.
Deploying demolition squads, most of the remaining intact buildings in Warsaw would be destroyed over the next several months. All of Warsaw’s treasures were looted, burned, or destroyed. Meanwhile the Red Army sitting outside Warsaw did nothing to stop the Germans. They would not move until January 1945 when their final offensive was launched. On 17 January 1945, the ruins of Warsaw were liberated by the Soviets who faced little or no opposition. Thus, making it easy for them to establish a Communist state in Poland. After suffering from Nazi occupation, the Polish people would suffer a longer one under the Communists.
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On 25 Jul 1943 the Fascist Grand Council formally voted Mussolini from power and was arrested later after meeting with King Victor Emmanuel III. Support for Mussolini had dropped dramatically because of Italy’s participation in World War II and most Italians were happy he was gone. How did Italy get to this point? Let’s take a look.
Benito Mussolini from the second edition of Adolf Dresler’s “Mussolini als Journalist” (1939) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Italy Aligns with Germany
On 22 May 1939 Italy signed a treaty with Germany that allied both countries militarily and politically. Mussolini nicknamed this treaty, formally known as the Pact of Friendship and Alliance, as the Pact of Steel. The treaty committed Italy to support Germany if attacked or if it declared war. Mussolini believed the pact would provide defense from other Western nations and provide support for his ambitions in the Balkans and elsewhere. Italy was in desperate need of resources due to international sanctions in using mustard gas to conquer Ethiopia. It also lacked the industrial capability at that time for a sustained military conflict. Germany and Italy shared similar interests in believing Fascism was on the march. Italy, like Germany, sided with Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). A treaty of mutual interest in 1936 brought them closer together and paved the way for the Pact of Steel. It was also Mussolini who coined the term Axis regarding the countries that signed the treaty.
Mussolini had hoped both the British and French would give him concessions after the Munich Agreement of 1938, where both powers forced Czechoslovakia to hand over territory to Germany. There was none and Mussolini gave speeches laying out Italy’s desire to take territory in North Africa, France, a part of Switzerland, and Albania. He also threatened British control of the seas and of taking Gibraltar. In both London and Paris, such talk was seen as signaling his territorial ambitions. In 1938, Italy invaded and conquered Albania convincing the other powers of his territorial ambitions. The Pact of Steel in 1939 cemented the partnership between the two countries that had been going on informally. Not all Fascists in Italy agreed with aligning with Germany. Foreign Minister Count Galeazzo Ciano, married to Mussolini’s daughter Edda, became skeptical later as Germany failed to disclose the plan to invade Poland as required by the treaty. While Ciano and other Fascists believed war with Britain and France was inevitable as both powers were blocking their ambitions, they did not see it occurring for a few more years. They dreadfully miscalculated Hitler’s aims and ambitions.
World War II
Mussolini knew that Italy was not ready for war until 1942 (and the Pact of Steel said neither side was to enter war till 1943). Lacking the raw resources and industrial capability, they needed to import both coal and steel. Countries like Britain banned those raw materials, making it difficult to acquire. Knowing this, Britain and France did try to lure Mussolini away from Germany by offering those resources. And it may have worked as Mussolini was preparing to sign documents to that effect. German pressure on Mussolini though scuttled it. They sent coal by train over the Alps to him to strengthen their friendship. The Italian Army was large on paper but lacked modern transport and weapons leaving them unable to hold their own against a fully trained and battle-ready army. Since supplies were critical to Italy, it failed to prepare its merchant fleet for war and lost many ships that were enemy ports when war was declared. Mussolini was warned by his military advisors to wait until war production would be able arm his military for war. While Italy easily took Albania, the British routed them in North Africa, and the Greeks were able to stop an Italian invasion of their country. In both cases, Germany sent troops to accomplish what the Italians failed to do. They were successful in Yugoslavia since German troops were with them. And they only declared war on France when Germany had defeated them so they could take territory in the south including Corsica. Thanks to Italian occupation in France though, Jews were safe as Italy refused German demands to turn them over.
Rationing of food and other supplies took its toll on the population. Due to a reduced merchant fleet, supplies became more difficult to acquire and had to rely on Germany for a lot of it. Inflation set in as well making it hard for many to buy the supplies. The poor military situation only made it worse and support for Mussolini began to slip. The army was lightly armored, the air force and navy were at odds with each other, poor leadership in the upper levels that were coupled with ill-defined goals. Additionally, Mussolini might decide to do things on a whim making it a chaotic situation. With the Allies taking Sicily, landing in the south, and dropping bombs on Rome, most people had enough of the war. Both King Victor Emmanuel III and members of the Fascist Grand Council wanted Italy out of the war. Mussolini had to go.
Mussolini Sacked
The Fascist Grand Council met on 24 July 1943-a meeting that would last till the next morning-to discuss what to do. Mussolini, according to various accounts, looked sick, tired, and felt the burden of the military defeats suffered by the Italian military. For some, it appeared he wanted a way out and he got it. The Grand Council voted to remove him from power and transfer some of his powers to the king. There was opposition, but the majority voted for his removal. His son-in-law, Count Galeazzo Ciano, voted for his removal as well. Mussolini seemed stunned and dazed by it. His supporters tried to rally him, but he seemed deflated. He left for his meeting with King Emmanuel and arrived unshaven and groggy. He was informed by the king that he was under arrest and that General Pietro Badoglio would be taking over as Prime Minister. The war was seen as lost, King Emmanuel reportedly said. Mussolini did not resist and seemed to accept it. He was told his family would remain safe. He was whisked away and imprisoned.
The announcement of Mussolini’s downfall was greeted with a general sense of relief. It was hoped this would mean the end of the war. The Fascists did not stage any protests or marches over his removal and imprisonment. He was being held at La Maddalena and later removed to a safer location to prevent his being rescued. The new Italian government negotiated behind the scenes seeking an armistice that would lead to a peace treaty. For a moment Italians breathed a sigh of relief hoping the war would soon be over.
Aftermath
Hitler was furious at his removal and knew the Italians would sign an armistice. Several German battalions were sent into Italy despite objections from the new government. When the armistice was announced on 3 September 1943, Operation Asche was implemented. German troops seized control of northern Italy and marched on Rome. They also seized all its territory in the Balkans and France. Italian forces were told to disarm or be fired upon. Some resistance was done in Rome as the royal family fled with the government. Corsica, Calabria, and Sardinia were successfully defended by Italian troops and repelled German troops until the Americans arrived. The Germans quickly implemented their anti-Jewish policies. Hitler ordered Mussolini found and was rescued from imprisonment at Hotel Campo Imperatore atop Gran Sasso d’Italia mountain range on 12 September 1943. Italians in the north would have to wait until June 1944 to be liberated. Mussolini later would be forced to flee with his mistress but would be captured by partisans, executed, and his body hung upside down for the world to see.
“Italian Campaign.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified July 2, 2026. Accessed July 27, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Italian-Campaign.
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Heinrich Himmler on 7 July 1942 ordered experimentation on women at Auschwitz concentration camp, which would later be extended to males. The purpose of the experiments was to find ways to sterilize Jews.
Heinrich Himmler, 1942 German Federal Archives (via Wikimedia Commons)
Extermination of Jews was something Himmler and many, including Hitler, fully supported. As head of the Schutzstaffel(SS) as well as the assistant chief of the Gestapo, he controlled all the secret police and paramilitary forces in Germany. This power gave Himmler the power to carry out Hitler’s Final Solution and the reason why he called for a conference about conducting such experiments. Attending the conference were SS General Richard Glueks (hospital chief), SS Major-General Karl Gebhardt, and Professor Karl Clauberg (a leading German gynecologist) and members of the Concentration Camp Protectorate.
It was decided that the experiments on sterilization would be done in a way women would not know what was being done to them. The experiments would reveal the best methods of sterilizing Jewish women and how to sterilize men as well using X-rays. Hitler approved but it was kept top secret. A prior plan to euthanize disabled people, those suffering from incurable diseases, or confined due to mental disorders had resulted in a public outcry they did not want repeated. One of the main reasons for sterilization was to use it in places where concentration camps could not be built. It was expanded to others they deemed inferior (Slavs, Roma, homosexuals etc.) Using medical treatments to hide their true objective of killing Jews would be revealed after the war.
Gate to Auschwitz I with its Arbeit macht frei sign (“work sets you free”), 2010 Image credit: xiquinhosilva Flickr via Wikimedia Commons
World History. “Nazi Angel of Death & His Horrific Medical Experiments on Auschwitz Prisoners – Josef Mengele.” Video. YouTube, April 25, 2023. Accessed July 8, 2026. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yWw5LMwM8x8.
World History. “Inhuman Nazi Medical Experiments & Nazi Doctors- Josef Mengele – Karl Gebhardt – Herta Oberheuser…” Video. YouTube, April 2, 2022. Accessed July 8, 2026. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTzke0HYjTo.
IV corps of the Grande Armeé in the invasion of Russia (1812) Albrecht Adam (1786 – 1862) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Russia on 24 June 1812 in retaliation for Czar Alexander I not accepting Bonaparte’s Continental System. Napoleon assembled the largest fighting force up to that time called the Grande Armee. With over 500,000 soldiers and staff, it marched into Russia seeking a quick victory. It was not to be. The Russian Army under General Mikhail Kutuzov was in retreat refusing a full-scale engagement against the powerful French. As Russia troops retreated, they burned everything leaving nothing for the French to find.
By September, Napoleon had engaged the Russians at Battle of Borodino. The battle was indecisive but resulted in large losses on both sides. On 14 September he arrived in Moscow to find it empty as the people had evacuated. The Russian Army too had left leaving the city to Napoleon. With winter approaching, Napoleon decided to rest and use it for his winter quarters. Russian partisans though set fires in the city the next day resulting in the quarters he had selected destroyed. He waited for a month hoping for a surrender which never came. Now with winter closing in, Napoleon decided to leave. The retreat though was more difficult than they could have imagined.
Fire of Moscow (1812) Viktor Mazurovsky (1859–1944) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
An early winter set in making it harder on his troops and food was rationed. The Russians, it seems, had not fully retreated, and began attacking the troops in the rear. Cossacks with very sharp lances attacked ruthlessly. They made it to the Berezina River in November but found Russians waiting for them. Using makeshift bridges, Napoleon and his troops started crossing but the Russians attacked. Napoleon burned the bridges stranding over 10,000 on the other side to be captured or killed by the Russians. Napoleon, in a hurry to return to Paris, would eventually leave his troops behind. The remaining force would eventually return home but fewer than a 100,000 made it back home. The loss of over 400,000 was staggering and called into question his leadership of the French Empire.
Aftermath
The disastrous invasion of Russia has long been studied by historians and military strategists. His basic idea of invading was sound, but he underestimated how long it would take and the will of the Russians to make him pay dearly for every inch he gained. Napoleon thought it would be a quick victory, but it turned into a long painful retreat with an early winter, few food supplies, and his army being attacked by Russians. If you read accounts of those who survived, it is truly horrific the conditions they had to retreat under. Dead animals used for fuel; bodies stacked in windows for insulation. If you recall Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back scene where Han Solo rips open his now dead ride so they can crawl inside it for warmth, this happened for real here.
Napoleon’s withdrawal from Russia by Adolph Northen (1828-1876) Public Domain (via Wikimedia Commons)
His defeat in Russia strengthened his enemies. Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Sweden would now ally with Russia against Napoleon. British forces under Wellington were slowly but steadily pushing the French out of Spain. While Napoleon would have some victories, two defeats hurt his reign enormously. The Battle of Vittoria in Spain on 21 June 1813 would end French domination of Spain. His brother Joseph that he had put on the throne, was forced to flee for his life. Sadly, the royal crown worn by Spanish kings was lost in the melee of the retreat and never to be found again. And in October 1813, he suffered a crushing defeat in the Battle of Leipzig. Paris would fall the following March forcing him into exile. He would briefly return in 1815 but be defeated again in the Battle of Waterloo
Invading Russia has not proven successful for any conquering general. You might get initial successes, as Hitler did, but it seems to always turn around against the invader. Hitler, like Napoleon, thought the campaign would be quick. Instead after their initial victories, Operation Barbarossa ran into real problems. General Franz Halder realized he had sorely underestimated how many divisions the Russians could field. And because of the long distances involved, it became very hard for Germans to hold their lines. Moscow was in at sight at one point, but they never got there due to the long expanse of territory, supply issues, and underestimating the strength of Russia. Like Napoleon, the German forces were stalled. Halder believed without a powerful lightning strike, there was little chance for success. Owing to policy and strategy differences with Hitler, he was dismissed. The damage was done and the losses substantial. The Russians would push eventually the Germans out of their country and follow them all the way back to Berlin.
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On 22 June 1940, the formal surrender of France to Germany was concluded. Signed on 21 June 1940 at Compiegne in the same railway car in which Germany surrendered in 1918, it was a major triumph for Hitler. He also sat in the exact same chair that Marshal Ferdinand Foch sat in receiving the German surrender in 1918. The site where the treaty was signed, a monument to France’s defeat of Germany in World War I, was destroyed and the railway car shipped to Germany.
German Troops in Paris, 14 June 1940 Photo: Heinz Fremde (1907-1987) German Federal Archives:Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-126-0350-26A / Fremke, Heinz / CC-BY-SA 3.0
France at the outset of the war was considered to have the best professional army in continental Europe. Aside from trained soldiers, they had tanks and heavy artillery. And, of course, the famous Maginot Line. This was a series of fortifications near the German border meant to deter an invasion force. The hills and woods of the Ardennes were considered impenetrable in the north but there was a caveat as General Philippe Petain noted. You had to destroy the invasion force before it exited that area. France and Germany had officially been at war since 3 Sep 1939 when France, allied with England, offered support to the Polish government.
French forces briefly entered the Saar on 7 September but withdrew after meeting a very thin line of German defense on the undermanned Siegfried line. With most of its forces concentrated in Poland at the time, Germany did not have the capacity to stand up to France’s 98 divisions and tanks that were being committed. However French hesitation and wanting to avoid total war had them withdraw forces starting on 17 September and done a month later. It began a time called the Phony War where both Germany and France were armed and ready, but nothing was happening. Hitler had hoped he could make peace with England and France but that was not to be.
On 10 May 1940, Germany attacked France. German armored units made a push through the Ardennes, and then through the Somme valley to surround the allied units in Belgium. British, Belgian and French forces were pushed to the sea. British forces were evacuated at Dunkirk, which is an exciting tale of its own. During the six-week campaign Germany conquered France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and The Netherlands. German troops marched unopposed into Paris on 14 June. By 18 June with the collapse of both the French government (which had fled) and the military, negotiations began between French and German military officers.
At the meeting on 21 June, Hitler read the preamble and like Marshal Foch left to leave Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, commander-in-chief of the Wehrmacht to handle the details. There were several objectives that the Germans wanted and got. They wanted French North Africa and the French Navy out of the war. Also, they wanted to deny the British use of French territories since they could not possibly defend them. Occupied France was 3/5ths of the country which included the key ports on the French Channel and Atlantic and to the Spanish border. The Free Zone was administered by a newly formed French government in Vichy with Marshal Petain as its president.
The Weeping Frenchman (Marseilles, 1940) This iconic picture of a Frenchman weeping is often wrongly attributed as being in Paris on the Champs-Élysées. In actuality, the man was in Marseilles and is weeping because the French troops are departing taking with them their regiment flags to North Africa in September 1940. It first appeared in Life magazine in 1941.
Vichy France, as it became known, was authoritarian and reversed the policies of previous administrations. The media became tightly controlled, anti-Semitism was propagated, and labor unions put under strict controls. Vichy France kept French territories and the navy under French rather than German control. With the German army elsewhere, unoccupied France was generally free from military control. However, due to its neutrality it was forbidden to assist nations at war with Germany. Despite it being unoccupied, Vichy had to conform to German policies including identifying foreign nationals, deporting stateless persons, and of course assisting Germans in locating and ultimately deporting French Jews to be murdered in the death camps.
The treaty was formally concluded on 22 June 1940 and went into effect on 25 June 1940. A separate treaty between France and Italy was signed as well. Italy initially only wanted a small portion of France (about 832 square miles with the largest town being Menton). In November 1942, after Germany seized a large portion of Vichy, Italy got control over Toulon and the eastern part of Provence up to the Rhone River. Corsica and Nice were also to become Italian occupied but that did not occur. During the period of Italian occupation, Jews were relatively safe as Italian authorities declined German requests to turn over Jews to them. Once Italy deposed Mussolini and later signed an armistice with the Allies in 1943, Germans quickly moved in and rounded up all Jews they could locate. Over 3,000 would be deported.
Suggested Reading
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Wouk, H. (2018, December). Winds of War [Special Collector’s Edition]. Paramount. This excellent six-part miniseries is based on the Herman Wouk novel of the same name. And he wrote the script for this, so it hues close to the book (but does compress or eliminate some characters or situations). Through the Henry family, we get to see the scope of the looming war approaching and their involvement in it. The acting is superb, though the actress Ali MacGraw is miscast as Natalie Jastrow. Aside from that, this is a riveting depiction of the events leading up to World War II. It is one of the best miniseries ever made, and it shows with the high production quality and attention to detail.
Midway Atoll, 24 November 1941 Public Domain (Official U.S. Navy photo)
Background
June 1942 saw the Empire of Japan dominate in Asia ruling a sizable empire. It began in the late 19th century when it seized Formosa (Taiwan) in 1895. The conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War (1905-1905) saw it acquire Korea. It would take Manchuria (renamed Manchukuo) in 1931. China was invaded in 1937 and seized the key cities of Shanghai, Nanking, and Peking. When France fell to Germany in 1940, Japan invaded to prevent it being used to supply China. Vichy France made a deal with Japan to keep it neutral but allow it within their sphere of power. Japan attacked and conquered Hong Kong after heavy fighting on Christmas Day 1941. Fortress Singapore, so named because of its impressive frontal defense, was defeated when the Japanese army came from the lightly defended rear (what was believed to be an impassable jungle) and conquered it on 15 Feb 1942. The Dutch East Indies (Indonesia today) were conquered by March 1942 and The Philippines in May. Japan, supported by local independence groups, also invaded Burma in 1941 and would finish in April 1942. Japan would use Burma to attack British held India. The Japanese began attacking northern Australia to prevent it from being used as a staging area.
Japan had succeeded in tossing out the imperial powers and absorbing them into its own empire. The only major power they were concerned with was the United States and the attack on 7 December 1941 had destroyed many of their battleships. Considered a success by the Japanese, they had hoped it would force the Americans to stay out of the conflict. However, the U.S. desire to fight back surprised them. The Doolittle Raid of 18 April 1942 where American bombers bombed Tokyo (they flew off aircraft carriers to accomplish this) stunned the Japanese government. And the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942 made them realize they had to defeat the American fleet. They decided to draw out the American fleet for a battle near Midway Island for a decisive battle. They saw themselves as the masters of the Pacific; the Battle of Midway would change that forever.
The Broken Japanese Code
A special naval intelligence unit called HYPO had broken it in March resulting in much of the plan becoming known to the U.S. They learned that the attack in Alaska was a feint to draw naval forces away from being used at Midway. They also learned that behind the Japanese carrier strike force was a large destroyer force sailing to meet them and deliver a decisive blow to any remaining U.S. ships after the attack on Midway. The American task force assembled were three aircraft carriers– Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown – seven heavy cruisers, 1 light cruiser, 15 destroyers, and 16 submarines. The Yorktown had to be quickly patched up after its recent encounter with the Japanese and needed some new aircraft and pilots. Admiral William Halsey was put in charge but due to illness had to be replaced by Rear Admiral Raymond Spruance. Spruance would command the Enterprise and Hornet along with her support vessels. Rear Admiral Frank Fletcher was in command of Yorktown.
The Japanese committed four carriers, 2 battleships, 2 heavy cruisers and 1 light cruiser, 12 destroyers, 13 submarines, and 16 floatplanes. Their support force were 4 heavy cruisers, 2 destroyers, and 12 floatplanes. The U.S. had 233 carrier-based aircraft to the Japanese 248. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, who had planned the attack on Pearl Harbor, designed the complex Midway battle. Part of his plan involved dispersing his forces so that they would not be readily seen by the Americans. He also believed he would be facing only two carriers, the Enterprise and Hornet, because th?e Yorktown had been badly damaged at the Battle of Coral Sea. However, the Americans had learned most of the plan from the decoded transmissions. And the planned dispersal proved more difficult as it required the support ships to keep up with them, which proved to be more difficult than originally thought.
The Battle
On 4 June 1942, Admiral Nagumo aboard the carrier Akagi launched the initial air attack on Midway composed of dive and torpedo bombers escorted by Zeroes. PBYs launched that morning from Midway would sight two Japanese carriers and radar picked up incoming Japanese fighters. Midway sent up unescorted bombers to delay the attack while the fighters remained behind to defend Midway. Midway came under heavy attack and its air interceptors took a heavy beating fighting the Japanese. Anti-aircraft fire from ground personnel proved to be more precise. Midway took a beating but was still functional and could launch planes.
Meanwhile scouting reports flying ahead of the American carriers placed the Japanese carriers at the extreme range for air attack. Making matters more difficult was the fact that Japanese scout planes had sighted the American fleet. Despite the extreme range, Spruance ordered the planes to be launched and increased the speed of the task force to close the distance. The torpedo squadrons left first but due to mechanical problems in launching the dive-bombers, had to fly unescorted. They would reach the Japanese and be quickly shot out of the sky by Japanese Zeroes and anti-aircraft fire. Not one torpedo launched did any serious damage.
The pilots of the U.S. Navy Torpedo Squadron 8 (VT-8) aboard the aircraft carrier USS Hornet (CV-8), circa mid-May 1942, shortly before battle of Midway. They flew unescorted by fighters to attack the Japanese aircraft carriers. The slow moving planes were no match for the fast Zeroes that attacked them. Not one torpedo they launched did any damage. However because of their bravery, the Zeroes were out of position when the American dive-bombers arrived allowing them to bomb the Japanese carriers. Ensign George Gay was the only survivor. Photo: May 1942 Source: Naval History and Heritage Command, digital ID NH 93595 Public Domain
Admiral Nagumo had a problem. His planes returned from Midway and were being re-armed for the next bombing run. But he had just gotten a report that the American navy was in the area. Its exact composition was unknown. So, he ordered a change in the ordnance for the attack planes. Instead of attacking land-based targets they would arm to destroy ships. The result was there a lot of ordnance out on the deck on the carriers where this was being done. With the Japanese combat air patrol out of position having dealt with the torpedo squadrons they were not able to intercept the next wave of attack. American dive-bomber squadrons from Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown would seemingly arrive nearly at the same time. It was one of the greatest coincidences in military history. Three Japanese carriers–Akagi, Kaga, and Soryu–would be sunk that day. The surviving carrier Hiryu counter-attacked by sending our air squadrons to attack any American carrier they could find. They found Yorktown and dropped three bombs heavily damaging the ship but not sinking it. Admiral Fletcher moved over to cruiser Astoria while it was being repaired. A second air attack an hour later would further damage Yorktown. She would later sink when being towed on 6 June by a torpedo fired by a Japanese submarine, which also sank the destroyer Hamman.
The Japanese believed they had turned the tide and would be able to go on with the Midway plan. They knew a huge fleet of destroyers and support craft was on the way. However, the Hiryu was found late in the afternoon. An air attack by Enterprise and Yorktown bombers resulted in four or possibly five bombs seriously crippling her. The fires prevented any planes taking off or landing. The crew would evacuate and later Hiryu would sink. Spruance, not wanting to risk exposure to Japanese forces and wanting to protect Midway, would retire to the west. Admiral Yamamoto still wanted to invade Midway and proceeded on course. Had Spruance not changed course, the remaining two carriers of the American fleet would have been exposed to Yamamoto’s destroyers. Spruance would go after the stragglers. Yamamoto ultimately ordered the fleet back to Japan not knowing the full composition of the American forces that might be pursuing.
The U.S. Navy lost 1 carrier, 1 destroyer, 150 aircraft and 307 killed. Many of those killed were from the torpedo squadrons that lost 80% or more of their pilots. The Japanese lost 4 carriers, 1 heavy cruiser, 248 aircraft and 3,057 killed. It was a major victory for the U.S., but most Japanese would never learn the full details until after the war was over. The survivors of the sunken carriers and those aboard the ships that survived would be quarantined or sent on duty assignments far away from home. None of the senior officers would face any serious repercussions. Only those at the very top were informed as to what really happened. Only the Emperor and the top naval officers knew the full details. The public was told it was a great victory, and the Imperial Japanese Army believed the navy was in good condition. However, Admiral Yamamoto and the other senior leaders of the Japanese Navy knew the truth. The United States would soon come out stronger than it had been before the attack on Pearl Harbor.
For the United States it would prove the value of intelligence gathering and codebreaking. It would continue to be an important part of the war effort and would yield even more useful information down the road with dire consequences for Admiral Yamamoto. The code breaking led directly to his plane being shot down in 1943 as payback for Pearl Harbor.
(Please note this is a very condensed description of the Battle of Midway and had a lot more stages in it than reflected in this writing).
The Federal File. “Destination Point Luck Voices From Midway – Battle of Midway WWII Documentary.” Video. YouTube, April 24, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vqpk4Rmfbm8.
[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]
“Midway Is East.” Archive.org, 1952, archive.org/details/VAS_04_Midway_Is_East. This is episode 4 from the excellent Victory at Sea series which was shown in 1952-1953. Using archived footage along with excellent music, the series conveyed the scope of naval warfare in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Watch the entire series if you can.
“The Battle of Midway (Short 1942) ? 6.1 | Documentary, Short, War.” IMDb, 14 Sept. 1942, www.imdb.com/title/tt0034498. This is a documentary made in 1942 right after the battle with John Ford directing. It uses actual footage and uses actors to voice over parts of accounts of the sailors and aviators that participated. It is available (f0r free) from some streaming services like Tubi. You can also view it on YouTube (the version linked here is the colorized version, not the original Black & White).
The Federal File. “Destination Point Luck Voices From Midway – Battle of Midway WWII Documentary.” YouTube, 24 Apr. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vqpk4Rmfbm8.
Midway. Directed by Jack Smight, The Mirisch Corporation, Universal Pictures, 1976. This 1976 movie starring Charlton Heston uses old stock footage and pushes the real historical figures in the background while pushing a fictional story line. While entertaining, many will find it lacking in a lot of real historical depth. The subplot involving Heston’s son in the movie makes it more of a soap opera at times. Worth watching to see some great actors but not so much if you are looking for something that will relate the real story of the battle.
Midway. Directed by Roland Emmerich, Summit Entertainment and others, 2019. This 2019 version significantly was better in terms of better effects and depicting events leading up and the Battle of Midway itself. Most of the characters are based on historical ones. Reviews were mixed on this one. Some thought it was a decent movie, but the story itself was not compelling. Rotten Tomatoes has it as 42% like it and IMDB users rate it as 6.7. It is certainly more historically accurate and shows the Japanese side (with actual Japanese actors speaking Japanese).
The signing of the Pact of Steel on 22 May 1939 in Berlin Photographer unknown Public Domain/WIkimedia Commons
On 22 May 1939, Germany and Italy signed the Pact of Friendship and Alliance that became known later as the Pact of Steel. This began the formal military and political alliance between the two countries. Initially Japan was to be part of the agreement but there was disagreement on the focus of the pact. Germany and Italy wanted it aimed at the British Empire and France, while Japan wanted the Soviet Union to be the focus. The agreement was signed without Japan but would later join in September 1940.
The agreement brought together two countries that opposed each other in World War I. It also required each country to come to the aid of the other if it were in armed conflict with another nation. Neither party could make peace without the agreement of the other. One of the assumptions of the agreement was that war would start in three years at the latest. Italy needed the time to get its war production into high gear. The agreement was for ten years but there was some concern within the Italian government the agreement would suppress Italian autonomy. The agreement was still signed despite these objections, which also came from Mussolini’s son-in-law, Galeazzo Ciano, who was the Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Hitler, however, would soon declare his intentions of invading Poland. Mussolini was not happy he was not consulted on this, nor about the Molotov-Ribbentrop Agreement. Italian forces did not commit fully to war until June 1940 when German forces had defeated British and French forces with lightning speed. Italy seized Nice as its prize. Other countries it tried to invade proved more difficult. Greek partisans brought the Italian force to a halt. Germany would intervene to help there and in Yugoslavia where Italian troops also pushed back by partisans. A disastrous attack on British Egypt from Italian Libya required German assistance as well. The economic consequences of the war were bad for most Italians generating widespread resentment that would lead one day to Mussolini’s fall from power in 1943.
Nations of the Pact of Friendship and Alliance (Pact of Steel)
U.S. Army newspaper Stars and Stripes announcing Hitler’s death 2 May 1945 Original source: U.S. Army Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons
Adolf Hitler, the leader and founder of the 1,000 Reich, committed suicide along with his wife Eva Braun. His death would end the war in Europe.
Since the defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, it had become increasingly apparent that Allied forces had turned the tide. Germany had lost North Africa, Italy had been liberated, and Allied troops were on German soil. The capture and execution of Benito Mussolini also weighed on Hitler’s mind in his final days in the underground bunker. Since learning the war was lost with Soviet troops now in Berlin, he had become more erratic.
Hermann Goering, head of the Luftwaffe and Hitler’s designated successor, tried to take over but was denounced, arrested, and stripped of his powers. Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, had entered into secret negotiations with the Allies via Sweden. Hitler had considered him one of his most loyal subjects, but when the BBC announced the negotiations, he too was denounced, stripped of his powers, and ordered arrested. Both would commit suicide later; Himmler not long after he was caught and Goering the night before his scheduled execution for war crimes.
Most of Hitler’s aides and lieutenants had left except for General Krebs, Martin Bormann, and Joseph Goebbels. Albert Speer had been ordered to carry out a scorched earth policy in Berlin but declined to do it. Hitler believed Germany was unworthy and allowed themselves to be defeated. In the early hours of April 29, 1945, Hitler married his long-time mistress, Eva Braun. He dictated his will and political testament. The will was short while the testament laid out a defense of his life and actions taken for Germany. He also appointed those to lead after his death.
On the afternoon of April 30, 1945, Hitler shot himself in the head (though some argue he took poison in case he survived) while Eva took poison. He ordered both bodies be burned in the Chancellery Garden. Goebbels transmitted the message to Admiral Karl Doenitz that he had been appointed president by Hitler. Goebbels and his wife would take their own lives later but would first kill their children with cyanide. His death was announced on May 1, 1945, by Hamburg Radio. The surrender of German troops in Italy and elsewhere would begin thereafter and all German forces had surrendered by May 5, 1945. Celebrations broke out after his death and later the full capitulation of German forces. The war in Europe was over but the war against Japan would continue for several more months.
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