Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry Folio 9, verso: September Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (manuscript illustration) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
September is the ninth month, but its name is derived from the Latin word septem meaning seven. On the old Roman calendar which started in March, September was the seventh month. When a new calendar was adopted in 153 BC, September became the ninth month, but its name remained. September is when the academic year starts, a month which transitions from summer to autumn, and harvests begin. The Autumnal Equinox takes place between September 22-24. In the Southern Hemisphere, they are transitioning to Spring.
Labor Day is the major holiday in the United States and, for most, signifies the end of summer vacation. Rosh Hashnanh, the Jewish New Year, takes place in September. The Eastern Orthodox Church, which uses the Julian Calendar, starts its liturgical year in September. September 11 is a special day of remembrance in the United States to remember the victims of the terrorist attacks on the New York World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and the plane that was downed by passengers in Pennsylvania. An old tradition sometimes followed is Michaelmas on September 29, the feast of St. Michael. In Britain crops were harvested and sold during September and annual rent payments were made. Many farmers feasted on goose to celebrate their prosperity and there were large market fairs as well. Some groups in the US still celebrate it and call it “Harvest Home.” The Chinese Moon Festival is also during September (or early October as the lunar calendar is used) and a major celebration for all Chinese. Lanterns, moon cakes, and the exchange of gifts are part of this celebration.
The first full moon of September is called the Harvest Moon, but many native Americans call it Full Corn or Barley Moon. As September transitions to Autumn, seasonal produce begins to appear. For the U.S. it will include apples, artichokes, cranberries, edamame, pears, pumpkins and quinces. Pumpkin spice begins to appear in beverages and baked foods. Some retailers though, wanting to cash in early, start selling those items in late August.
It is the last day of summer with August coming to an end. Schools have opened up and vacations have come to an end. Labor Day, the unofficial demarcation line between summer and autumn, is here. While the summer heat will linger as many kids sit down to study in school and gaze outside, the Autumnal Equinox is not that far away. Soon autumn colors will be seen and, in some areas, it will start to feel just a bit cooler. Other areas will have some nice weather inviting people to visit the beaches on weekends. Many will take this as a last opportunity to wear light clothes and bathing suits before packing them away for good as autumn progresses.
U.S. Army-Artillery retreat from Long Island-1776 Creator: Werner Company, 1899 (Akron, Ohio) U.S. Library of Congress, digital id#cph 3g03362 //hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3g03362
New York had a pivotal role in the American colonies and the American Revolution. Its central position made it vital to commerce and communication with the north and south colonies. This made it a key strategic location for both the British and American forces. General George Washington knew the British would target New York City, so he transferred the Continental Army to the city to turn back or slow down the British forces that would come. Fortifications were established in stages. Many of Washington’s troops were green, never been far from home, nor served in the military before. Washington split his forces between Brooklyn and Manhattan. This made reinforcement difficult and left a hole open at the Jamaica Pass the British would exploit.
When the British fleet arrived in June, it brought 20,000 British infantry that disembarked on Staten Island. The warships also could dominate the waterways that cut through New York City. The British sent 10,000 soldiers to Long Island, but Washington did not recombine his forces to counter it. Using a distraction, British General William Howe marched into position and on 27 August launch the attack on the Americans. Fighting raged on Guan Heights in the south and at Brooklyn Heights in the north, with the bloodiest fighting at Battle Pass where hand to hand fighting between Americans and Hessian mercenaries took place. The Americans are forced to withdraw to Brooklyn Heights. A countercharge led by 400 Marylanders would allow their comrades to escape. They would later be remembered as the Maryland 400 for their bravery. When the sun went down, the British had defeated the Americans but held off further attacks until the next day.
General Washington’s options were to surrender or evacuate at this point. While the battle had been lost, the spirit of the revolution was not dimmed. He ordered an evacuation of the troops at night, with British forces not that far away. By all accounts he was calm, authoritative, and in control of the situation. And he was aided in this task by a unique group of individuals called the Marbleheaders. They had worked together as a team fishing in the icy waters of the North Atlantic. So, they understood the weather, tides and time when sailing. Under the leadership of Colonel John Glover, this group using any sailing or rowing vessel they could find, worked to move Washington’s army across the East River to safety. It was no mean feat with British forces all around them. Oars were covered in cloth to prevent making noise in the water, everyone was told to stay quiet and not cough. They used minimal lighting and did not tell the soldiers what was going on until the last minute (this was to prevent the British from finding out).
They moved all the horses, ammunition, and cannon first. Then all the injured and wounded were transported. And then the evacuation began at 10 pm of the troops. Both the tide and winds were in their favor and the water was calm. When the tide changed, it became more difficult to keep the boats from going off-course on the return trips. The Marbleheaders had to really work hard to not loose control of their vessels. Around midnight, the winds shifted making the use of sloops (which used sails rather than oars) possible. Some chaos began to erupt at the embarkation point as soldiers started to rush to the boats. Washington seeing men trying to fight for a place on the boats, threatened to sink the ship unless the men who had pushed others aside got out. This restored the calm and shows how the proper use of leadership in such exacting times can work. The evacuation took all night and was still not done by the morning on 30 August. They had accomplished an impossible task of transporting thousands of men in just nine hours. Dawn though saw Americans still manning the trenches and it spelled doom for them when the British attacked.
Then quite suddenly a thick fog appeared and cloaked the escape. Those escaping in the early morning commented on how smooth the water was. The fog came at exactly the right time and place to remove the remaining American troops to safety across the East River. Washington oversaw the retreat and encouraged his men staying ashore until the last boat was being loaded. At that point he boarded and headed across the river. Thanks to the fog, and the lack of any alarm received by the British, Washington was able to evacuate his entire army leaving the British to find them gone.
While the British defeated Americans at the Battle of Brooklyn Heights (and would hold New York till 1783), the remarkable escape of Washington’s troops would be well regarded both for the incredible evacuation and the leadership of Washington himself. Far from dispiriting the troops or the cause, it became a source of great inspiration, and many believe the hand of God was involved as well. The fame of the Marbleheaders in being able to make the crossing possible would spread. More importantly confidence in George Washington as a capable military leader would result. He made a mistake in dividing his forces, but his remarkable leadership to save his troops would show he was a military leader both the people and his troops could rely on.
Sources
“The Heroes of the American Revolution and Their Descendants?: Whittemore, Henry, 1833- [From Old Catalog]?: Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming?: Internet Archive,” Internet Archive, last modified 1897, accessed August 28, 2025, https://archive.org/details/heroesofamerican00whit/page/n9/mode/2up.
O’Donnell, P. K. (2017b). Washington’s Immortals: The Untold Story of an Elite Regiment Who Changed The Course Of The Revolution. Grove Press. This book does something rare and takes you back to those days with a skill and acumen few writers have. This is not a dry recitation of history, but an exploration of all the factors and people who played a role in the revolution that unfolded. It blends neatly stories about the many individuals, why they choose to revolt, military history of the battle, and very interesting details of a small band of hardy sailors that knew the waters well to give Washington the key to escape from New York. A must read if you want to delve into the people and their motivations for their desire to revolt. And a lot of military details skillfully intertwined so you never get bogged down.
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On 27 May 1883 Krakatoa (Krakatau), a volcano on small island west of Sumatra in Indonesia, would render its final blasts resulting in one the deadliest volcanic eruptions in modern history.
1888 lithograph of the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa. Image published as Plate 1 in The eruption of Krakatoa, and subsequent phenomena. Report of the Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society (London, Trubner & Co., 1888). Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Krakatoa had started erupting in May 1883 and continued erupting off and on for several months. The eruptions at times were so loud they were heard in Jakarta. The eruptions seemed to quiet down for a while but then intensified in later in June resulting in more earthquakes, higher tides, and ships having to be moored with heavy chains to prevent lines snapping. Finally on 26 August it began continually erupting starting in the afternoon. The eruptions were loud and were soon heard all over Java. Ash and hot pumice also began to fall with ship crews having to deal with the hot pumice. A small tsunami was also generated.
On the morning of 27 May, Krakatoa would erupt four times starting at 5:30 am. The third one at 10:02 am was so loud it was heard 3,000 miles away with people thinking a ship offshore was firing cannons. Tsunamis were generated by each of these blasts as well completely sweeping over neighboring islands and coastlines. The final blast at 10:41 am was triggered by a landslide triggering deadly tsunamis as well. The pyroclastic flow from the eruptions crossed the water and went inland causing more death and destruction was well. Over 36,000 died from both the tsunamis and pyroclastic flows.
Studies indicate the tsunamis at one point were 120 feet high and completely stripped small islands of both people and vegetation. The pyroclastic flows stretched forty miles inland. More people died from the tsunamis than the pyroclastic flows. One steamship, the Berouw, was carried 2.5 miles inland by the tsunami killing all 28 crewmembers. No attempt was made to remove it and is still visible (though decayed by time and nature) to this day. A lighthouse was destroyed by a massive 600-ton coral block that the tsunami carried with it. Rail lines were bent, and infrastructure was damaged. Whole communities and villages were wiped out as well. The pressure wave created by the third eruption radiated outward at a speed of 675 mph (1,086 km) per hour. The eardrums of sailors on the RMS Norham Castle off Sumatra and about 64 miles away were ruptured. It is now estimated the decibel level of the third eruption was 180 decibels, the loudest sound heard by humanity.
This image shows that 2/3 of the island was destroyed in the 1883 eruption. Image by ChrisDHDR via Wikimedia Commons Public Domain
The pressure wave caused windows to shatter and walls to crack in Batavia (now Jakarta). Gasometers there went off scale due to this pressure wave and barographs around the world measured the pressure wave. It circled the world for three days. The final blast, believed to be a lateral explosion, is estimated to be 200 megatonnes of TNT making it more powerful than the most powerful thermonuclear weapons. The island was nearly destroyed and only a small fragment remained. No major eruptions were noted until 1920 when a new cone appeared and was named Anak Krakatau (Son of Krakatau) and grew quickly. It erupted in 2018 creating a deadly tsunami with 260-foot waves (80 meters). 437 died but over 30,000 injured and displaced. It erupted again in 2020, but no damage resulted.
The eruption of 1883 is regarded as the first scientifically recorded and studied eruption. The study of volcanoes, volcanology, would grow from this event. It was also the first mass reporting of destruction of this type as well. The telegraph, thanks to land and undersea cables, connected the world. News of the disaster quickly spread throughout the world. What used to take weeks or even months to be known was known in days.
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[Update Information-This was updated from 2024 with revised article, corrections for grammar and punctuation.]
Vesuvius from Portici by Joseph Wright of Derby(1734–1797) Image:Public Domain
It was just around noon on 24 August 79 AD when Mount Vesuvius erupted with a massive 10-mile mushroom cloud sent into the stratosphere. It would become one of the deadliest volcanic eruptions in history. Ash and pumice would rain down over the entire area for twelve hours. Those who fled early on were able to survive what came next. A pyroclastic flow–a fast moving hot gas mixed with volcanic matter–would sweep down from the mountain engulfing the area and killing everyone still there. The eruption was so massive and so powerful that geologists use the term Vesuvian to describe similar deadly eruptions of its kind.
An Accurate View of Ancient Pompeii Before It Was Destroyed by an Eruption in AD 79. Image: Pinterest.
The Bay of Naples was during this period known for its trade and luxury. Foods and other commodities were constantly being shipped in and out allowing the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum to have a high standard of living. The resort city of Stabiae was the place many went to relax in. Mount Vesuvius stood majestically above it all and no one considered the mountain could one day be a problem. There were no records of any eruptions during Roman history. There was an eruption during the Bronze Age that decimated settlements and even more violent eruptions in the far past. During the Roman period and the prior periods when the Greeks and others had settled in the areas, there were no eruptions. Stromboli was known to them and had been actively erupting long before the Romans. Stromboli erupts near its crater and, in most cases, causes no damage. So, Romans had no experience with volcanic eruptions like what happened in 79 AD.
There had been earthquakes that had occurred prior to the eruption. Excavations have determined they were in the process of repairing streets and underground plumbing damaged by them. However, they had no idea the tremors related to the nearby mountain. Indeed, they were caught by surprise when around 1 pm on 23 August when Vesuvius began erupting and spewing forth hot ash and pumice which began to rain down on the area. People close to the volcano began to flee and others, nervous about the situation, did as well. It is estimated about 20,000 people lived in both Pompeii and Herculaneum. As the hours went on, people could see what looked like fires on the mountain causing many more to likely flee. Pyroclastic flows started coming down near the mountain and then later consume settlements near them. The flows took down everything in their paths and killed everyone that was there. Ash and pumice continued to fall adding more problems for breathing and started damaging structures. Other earthquakes added damage and there was a minor tsunami in the Bay of Naples.
It was on the second day that Vesuvius would erupt so massively that it would give the name to such violent eruptions. The massive 10-mile mushroom cloud released 1,000 times more than the nuclear devices used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The massive amounts of ash and pumice ejected was about 1.5 million tons per second. The pyroclastic flows it generated on the second day swept through Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, and Stabiae killing anyone who had not fled with the ash and pumice burying them completely. The only surviving account as to what happened comes from the writings of Pliny the Younger who witnessed the eruption while staying west across the Bay of Naples. His uncle, Pliny the Elder, sailed over to Stabiae to find out what was going on. They had planned to stay the night, but the ash and pumice had made the houses unstable and decided to leave. Unfortunately, a plume of toxic gases came over the area and they had to flee. Pliny though was unable to escape and would die. They would find his body three days later exactly where he fell with no other injuries. Pliny the Younger would compile survivor accounts and his own observations. He provided them to Tacitus, who included it his writings.
The reaction of the Roman people was utter disbelief. No one had any inkling that Mount Vesuvius was deadly. And at least 20,000 people were believed dead. Many wealthy Romans and senators had residences there. It was a major loss for the Romans. Rome declared a mourning period, though its exact length is unknown but perhaps up to a year. Depictions from that time show Romans wearing dark robes to signify the mourning. The new Emperor Titus sent two consuls to Pompeii the set up any assistance that was needed. He ordered the treasury to aid the Compania region and rebuild Pompeii. Property was given to survivors whose relatives owned them prior to their deaths. And the people of Pompeii would be free from taxes for the next five years. However, due to the totality of the destruction, most gathered what possessions they could access and resettled elsewhere. The amount of ash that covered the cities was substantial, so they were abandoned. Thieves burrowed in the ash to locate valuables. And the city was used as a quarry with all the ash. Additionally marble and stone blocks were removed for other building projects along with other items.
“The Civita hill, which was covered in eruptive material, from which parts of the upper floors of buildings emerged, became an uninhabited site, though one where man returned to cultivate, and use the area as a burial ground. In certain cases, the structures which emerged were re-used for other purposes, such as in the case of the bakery which was constructed in a vaulted room which faces onto the southern crag of the plain, or the structures which were built over the Women’s Forum Baths. Along the restored road outside the city, several buried structures were also unearthed and repurposed. The most significant case is that of the Moregine baths, which were discovered during the construction of the Naples-Salerno motorway on the southern outskirts of modern Pompei: the building had been partly reused, with the laying of a clay slab floor over the ash layer from the eruption of AD 79, until another eruption buried it, causing the permanent abandonment of the complex.” (Pompeii After the Eruption)
Significant excavations beginning in 1927 on have revealed much of what life must have been like before the destruction. More somber were the finding of some 2,000 bodies. Volcanic ash hardened and preserved the outlines of their bodies. Once the flesh had gone, the outline remained but filled in with plaster revealed those final moments of their lives. And it was not pleasant at all.
Vesuvius is still an active volcano. Its last major eruption was in March 1944 and destroyed several small villages with lava. The eruption was seen from Naples and damaged (thanks to hot ash and other things) or destroyed up to 88 B-25 medium bombers based in Terzigno, Italy. The volcano is kept under constant watch to prevent anything on the scale of the eruption of 79 AD to the people who live under its shadow.
Sources
“Vesuvius | Facts, Location, & Eruptions,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified August 17, 2025, accessed August 25, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/place/Vesuvius.
Odyssey – Ancient History Documentaries, “What Was Normal Life Like in Pompeii Before the Eruption? | Lost Lives of Pompeii,” Video, YouTube, May 29, 2024, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_xECnMywBHY.
Real History, “Vesuvius Reconstructed: How the Eruption Annihilated Pompeii | the Riddle of Pompeii | Real History,” Video, YouTube, July 20, 2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e-fInA8tK9U.
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On 23 August 1939 it was announced that Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union had signed a non-aggression treaty. The announcement was a complete surprise since Hitler had both in his writings and public speaking had denounced Communism and the Soviet Union. So why did this happen and what were its effects? Let’s find out.
Map of Europe and Western Asia in 1923 after World War I. Image via Wikimedia Commons
Both Germany and Russia had suffered in World War I. Germany was defeated by the Allies, lost its monarchy and colonial territories, and was ordered to pay huge reparations per the Versailles Treaty. Russia had gotten into the war to protect Serbia but was ill-equipped for a major war due to its limited resources and industrial capability. It suffered humiliating defeats during the war and its people suffered with reduced goods and services. This fed to unrest which led to Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate and allow a more democratic government to take over. Alas, that did not last as it continued in the war despite its unpopularity. This allowed the Communists, led by Lenin (who had been sent back to the country by Germany to foment chaos) to seize power and overturn the entire social and political structure of the country. In Germany, after a decade of vacillating leadership and discontent over inflation and Germany’s loss of status in the world, Adolf Hitler would lead the Nazi Party to victory after he was given the chancellorship in in 1933. Both Germany and Russia (now called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or just Soviet Union), were led by authoritarian governments that ruled with an iron fist.
The Soviet Union in its early days sought a promised world-wide revolution that never happened causing its leader Lenin and later Stalin to realize that building up the country first was needed before worldwide revolution. Hitler and the Nazi’s had a different view as they wanted to expand their country and restore pride in Germany. A new Germany was being formed with a clear ideology they were the people that would lead to change Europe and the world. By 1939, Germany was making its moves in Europe by invading Czechoslovakia. In 1938, they demanded and got a piece of Czechoslovakia when Britain and France, desperate to avoid war, forced Czechoslovakia to accept the deal breaking a treaty they had signed to defend it. Germany also annexed Austria that year as well uniting both countries. The invasion of Czechoslovakia told Britain and France that Hitler would not honor his agreements.
On the Russian side, Stalin had instituted programs to industrialize the country, but his brutal dictatorship had resulted in people being denounced, tried, and either imprisoned for years or executed. A climate of fear existed and not knowing whether someone had denounced you in secret made you wonder if you would come home that night. The Great Purge of 1936-1938 saw its officer corps depleted. The German Gestapo, feeding on Stalin’s paranoia, used the situation to use create documents that implicated many in the officer corps but also in government as well. The era became known for its show trials where the accused would be brought in, tried of a crime they didn’t commit, and faced imprisonment or death depending on the severity of the charge. Those who had become important members of government or close to Stalin that had been purged would be removed from the public record as well. Photos were retouched to show they were no longer walking, standing, or near Stalin or other people.
Stalin looked at expanding the Soviet Union by stealth or force into Europe. He hoped the war between the European nations would so weaken them so he could achieve his aims. Poland was, like Czechoslovakia a means to an end for both powers. Germany’s racial theory held the Polish people were, like the Jews, to be eliminated. For all the bad reasons, both Hitler and Stalin would come to terms and agree to a treaty that divided Poland into two spheres. Secret protocols to the pact indicated the demarcation lines and other things as well. The countries of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland were secretly divided up as well giving both Germany and the Soviet Union access to raw materials. This allowed Hitler to invade Poland in September. Russia would move to claim its share of Poland, which the German military was not quite happy about since in some areas they had to withdraw back to the lines agreed to in the secret protocols.
“Nothing more unbelievable could be imagined. Astonishment and skepticism turned quickly to consternation and alarm”. (Gunther, John (1940). Inside Europe. New York: Harper & Brothers.)
Stalin and Ribbentrop shaking hands over the newly signed pact between Germany and Soviet Union. August 23,1939 Source: German Federal Archive
The news of the agreement, popularly called the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, stunned the world. No one expected that Hitler would make a deal with Stalin. There had been some leaks suggesting of it, but no one thought it credible this would occur. The British and French had been in negotiations with the Soviets for months and were blindsided. Soviet propaganda heralded the agreement while others questioned secret protocols that were signed. Italy and the U.S. were given some limited information about them, but the full details were not disclosed. Soviet propaganda downplayed the previous attacks on Germany and Molotov himself made it clear they harbored no ill will. Nazi propaganda also had to do an about face as well. The Nazi’s had shut down the German Communist Party, imprisoned its leaders, and shut down its press. And they had nothing good to say about the Soviet Union either. Now they had to say everything was good with the hated Communist state.
Meanwhile the Baltic States began to worry how the rumored secret protocols would soon impact them. British and French attempts to meet with the Soviet negotiator over the agreement were rebuffed. Hitler said that with the treaty in place Britain should recognize Germany’s claims over Poland since it changed the situation from that of World War I. Instead, and to the German leader’s surprise, Britain announced a defense pact with Poland on 25 August 1939. Needless to say, Poland now realized it was being divided up by the two powers and war was coming.
How Central Europe would be divided up according the agreement. And what actually happened before Germany broke the treaty and attacked the Soviet Union. Author: Peter Hanula via Wikimedia Commons
The British and French governments had reached their end with Hitler; they no longer trusted him. In both countries the appeasement supporters diminished as reality set in that war was most certainly coming now with Germany. Neville Chamberlain, the chief supporter of the Munich Agreement a year before to avoid war, now realized his failure. He made it clear to Germany it would stand by Britain’s agreement to defend Poland. Hitler considered Chamberlain a fool and ordered the military to invade Poland as planned. The only question the Germans really had was whether those powers would do anything while they were attacking Poland. Both the British and French declared war on Germany when it invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 but took no immediate military action. It was a mistake that would prove costly for both countries later.
Aftermath
Stalin gambled that Hitler would focus on Europe and not on Russia. His goal was to build up the Soviet Union for war or to move in when his forces had subverted the country they wanted to take. Like many (including the German military high command) a two-front war was to be avoided. All of that went out of the window when Hitler decided he would invade Russia in 1941 under Operation Barbarossa. The goal of the operation was to remove and execute the leadership of Russia, take control of Russia, and make it a place for German resettlement. Stalin was not prepared for war and had discounted warnings Germany was about to invade as an attempt to get Russia to scuttle the treaty. Germany got the initial success and took territory easily defeating the military forces it encountered. However, they never took Moscow despite being twenty miles from it. And as time went on, faced more stiffer resistance and a military helped by American military equipment sent to help Russia defeat Hitler.
A vicious war broke out between the German and Russian forces creating now an Eastern Front that began to demand more resources than initially thought needed. The Soviet Union was getting supplies from the Allies using the dangerous North Atlantic to Murmansk route. And when the Allies landed in Europe in June 1944, this caused even more strain already on the limited resources Germany had. The Soviet troops started pushing back and ultimately forced Germany into retreat and ultimately to Berlin in 1945 where Hitler would commit suicide rather than be captured.
Stalin though did achieve his war aims in the end. Now with their troops in Poland and throughout Central Europe in countries they had liberated from Nazi rule, they would undermine the return of its former governments and subverted their political structure to ensure Communists would take charge. Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Yugoslavia all came to be controlled by the Soviet Union through governments that were installed and supported by them. It gave them access to sources of raw materials they had not had before and created a buffer around Russia. For people that had survived living under the yoke of Nazi controlled governments, it was simply swapping out one ideology for another with the same type of tyranny running things. Yugoslavia under Tito did break away from Moscow (he was fiercely independent but Communist) but that was about it.
The Iron Curtain, in black. Countries to the East of it are noted in Red and Warsaw Pact countries. NATO countries are blue, neutral states gray. Green depicts Yugoslavia which broke away from Moscow in 1948. Albania also had its own split starting in 1961 and in 1968 withdrew from the Pact but remained Communist. While a small part of Austria was occupied by the Soviet Union from 1945-1955, it did not join the Warsaw Pact and declared its neutrality. The small black dot in East Germany indicates West Berlin which was circled with the infamous Berlin Wall starting in 1961. Image: Sémhur via Wikimedia Commons
Until the fall of Communism began in 1991, these countries would remain either directly or indirectly controlled by Moscow through their governments. Some countries such as Czechoslovakia would break up (Czech Republic and Slovakia) after Communism ended. Yugoslavia would also break up as well into Bosnia, Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Romania had the most violent uprising (Poland had strikes that forced out the Communists) that ended with its leader being executed in the end. East Germany would be unified with West Germany ending the separation that had begun in 1945.
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On 27 April 1865 the steamboat Sultana, carrying recently released Union prisoners of war, exploded on the Mississippi River, killing 1,450 to 1,900 people. This disaster remains the deadliest maritime loss in U.S. history.
Sultana 26 April 1865 at Helena, Arkansas and obviously overcrowded. So many crowded on the port side to be in the photograph that it caused issues for the ship. Original source: United States Library of Congress Public Domain Photo: Public Domain (U.S. Library of Congress, digital id#cph.3a48909)
The Sultana was built as a side-wheel steamboat in Cincinnati in 1863. The 260-foot-long wood steamboat transported passengers and freight between St. Louis and New Orleans on the Mississippi River. She was powered by four fire-tube boilers which could generate twice the amount of steam as conventional boilers. The one major drawback is that each boiler required water levels to be always maintained. Since it used river water, this had to be carefully monitored as sediment would block flues. And if the water level got too low hot spots would develop and an explosion would occur. With steamboats of this period using light weight wood that was covered with oil-based paint, fires were a major concern.
J. Cass Mason was the Sultana’s captain and was part owner. He was an experienced captain but had gotten into trouble trying to ship contraband. The Sultana departed St. Louis on 13 April 1865 for New Orleans. When he arrived at Cairo, Illinois on 15 April, he learned the shocking news of the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. Grabbing a stack of newspapers, he immediately departed south as many places had no telegraph and would not learn the news of this event. Arriving in Vicksburg, he was approached by Captain Reuben Hatch, the chief quartermaster. He had a problem. The recently released Union Army prisoners of war needed to get home. And the government was willing to pay $2.75 for each enlisted man and $8.00 for each officer. Hatch knew that Mason needed the money and offered a 1,0000 Army soldiers. To secure this “guarantee” though, Hatch would get a kickback. Mason agreed and the Sultana continued its journey to New Orleans. Sultana departed New Orleans on 21 April 1865 with approximately 70 passengers, some livestock, and a crew of 85. On the way to Vicksburg, one of the boilers leaked and the steamboat limped into Vicksburg to pick up the Union prisoners heading home.
The boiler needed immediate repair but that would take several days. Mason was concerned that this delay would cost him money and other steamboats would take the released Union prisoners. The mechanic was ordered to make temporary repairs which only took a day hoping to make the full repair when he arrived back in St. Louis. Meanwhile the Sultanabegan taken on the prisoners. The ship had an official capacity of 376 people but would take on 1,950 of the prisoners along with 22 guards and 70 passengers. Every available space was used, and the overflow was so severe that at some places there was noticeable creaking and sagging requiring wooden beams for support. As Sultana departed on 24 April, it was carrying 2,127 people. Making matters worse, a massive Spring flood had occurred making it difficult traveling upriver. When she arrived in Helena, Arkansas on 26 April, a photo was taken showing how overcrowded the vessel was. Arriving at Memphis that night, she unloaded 200 men and sugar before departing around midnight to pick up coal upriver. Around 1 am, the ship continued its journey.
At 2:00 am on 27 April 1865 when Sultana was about seven miles north of Memphis, a massive explosion occurred with one boiler and then the three others exploded. The effect was catastrophic with it tearing through the crowded decks killing many and destroying the pilothouse. The ship was a burning hulk without anyone to steer it. The smokestacks collapsed causing further damage and death. Many became trapped inside as the forward part of the upper deck collapsed onto the middle deck. The twin openings of the main stairway survived allowing many to run down them. However, broken wood on the ship caught fire with the now exposed furnace boxes turning the ship into a raging inferno. Many jumped into the water, some in whole groups. Many were still recovering from their imprisonment and lacked the strength to survive. Whole groups of men clung together in desperation and perished together. Some grabbed ahold of debris to stay afloat.
The steamer Bostona was already heading downriver and came upon the scene at 2:30 am. She rescued scores of survivors in the water. Meanwhile many who had survived were being carried downriver by the current towards Memphis. There were cries of help heard and this caused the docked ships, several steamers and naval ships, to come to their aid. The water was icy cold from the spring runoff and many perished from hypothermia or drowned. A few survivors were even found on trees near the swollen riverbanks. Bodies of victims would be found downriver for months. Nearly all the Sultana’s officers perished including Captain James Cass Mason.
The news was greeted with shock when it was reported. Then it disappeared from the news. The assassination of President Lincoln and hunting down the assassin and those who aided him filled the news. It was not forgotten by the survivors nor by the people of Memphis, who went out of their way to assist those who had survived the disaster. The official investigation concluded that improper water levels along with overcrowding and being top heavy all contributed to the disaster. Another investigation in 2015 suggests that the quality of the metal in the boilers, the use of river water often filled with sediment, and the design of the boilers all contributed to the explosion. Some have speculated that sabotage was involved and while intriguing, no proof has been found to substantiate it. The PBS show History Detectives (2 July 2014) debunks those claims and focuses on the overcrowding and corruption as the major issues.
Despite the catastrophe, no one was held accountable. The military commission that investigated the tragedy determined the boiler explosion was the cause and discounted entirely the fact the ship was overloaded. J. J. Witzig, the supervising inspector of steamboats, found that the patch used for the emergency repair was too thin for the pressure of the return trip. There were other inquiries that pointed fingers at various officers that resulted in the overcrowding of the Sultana. Ultimately a court martial was ordered and both Captain Hatch and Captain Frederic Speed, who had overseen the troops being sent to the ship, were ordered to appear. Hatch, who had allegations of corruption in the past and had been promoted to Lieutenant Colonel, never appeared. Speed was found guilty of all charges and to be dismissed from the service. This was overturned by the Army Judge Advocate General who determined Speed was not responsible for the actual loading, but Captain George Augustus Williams was.
It was Williams inaccurate numbers to Speed that caused problems with the exact numbers aboard Sultana. Williams was not prosecuted by the Army. Hatch, on the other hand, was relieved of his duties as chief quartermaster on 3 June 1865. Sometime later he was aboard the steamer Atlanticcarrying $14,490 in government money. A thief broke into the safe stealing the money but was captured before docking in St. Louis. However, there was $8,500 missing from the government money that Hatch claimed was in the safe. He was found in violation of government regulations in transporting the money and held liable for its loss.
In the wake of the disaster, safety laws for steamships were changed. The boilers responsible for the explosion were banned. The Act of 1871 established and revised the older Steamboat Act by creating a Steamboat Inspection Service giving it power to regulate all commercial steam-powered vessels, implement measures to protect passengers and crews, requiring licensing of ship masters and chief mates (and the authority to revoke them), and issue nautical rules for steamboat operations. This would shift to the Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation (BMIN) in 1936 which was part of the Commerce Department. It would shift to the Coast Guard starting in World War II and has stayed there ever since.
The remains of the Sultana were found 1982 but not in the Mississippi River but under a soybean field on the Arkansas side of the river. The Mississippi River has changed course over the years and so now the remains are on dry land and 2 miles east of where it was in 1865. Various memorials exist to the victims. The Sultana Disaster Museum has opened in Marion, Arkansas. The disaster remains as one of the worst maritime disasters in the United States and yet few know of it.
[This was modified from the 2022 posting. New source material was added along with expanded information regarding the disaster and Sultana]
Babe Ruth, 23 July 1920. Original Author: Irwin, La Broad, & Pudlin U.S. Library of Congress digital id#cph.3g07246 Public Domain
In the annals of baseball, Babe Ruth is considered one of the greatest sluggers of all time. Called “the Bambino”, the “Sultan of Swat”, or just Babe Ruth, his name is etched forever in baseball history. His professional career spans 22 seasons from 1914-1935. Starting out as a left-handed pitcher for the Boston Red Sox, Babe Ruth showed he had a talent as a slugger hitting an impressive. 29 homeruns for the Red Sox in 1919. That beat the record of 24 set in 1884 by Ned Williamson of the Chicago White Sox. Under the Red Sox, he was in three World Series including the one in 1919. Boston fans were thrilled with the Babe, but the team owner Harry Frazee, needing cash for his theatre, decided to sell the champion team to raise cash. Babe Ruth was traded to the New York Yankees. The Boston Red Sox would not win another World Series until 2004. During that long drought, it was called the Curse of the Bambino.
Baseball suffered a major crisis over the Black Sox Scandal. The 1919 World Series between the Chicago White Sox and the Cincinnati Reds was tainted by allegations that eight members of the Sox were paid to lose by a gambling syndicate. Evidence was presented to a grand jury and they indicted the 8 players. Key evidence disappeared and signed confessions of two players were recanted. The trial ended up in an acquittal but the new commissioner of baseball, former federal judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis, banned all eight from baseball for life. America was stunned by the conduct of the 8 players. While Landis brought the hammer down to clean up baseball, the game needed a reboot for people had turned away from the game.
And it was in New York where a former pitcher, now outfielder, and who could swing a bat like no one else had seen before, would make baseball once again popular for people to pay to see. Crowds would come to see this slugger, with the impossibly shaped body, send balls out of the park. Attendance figures soared for the Yankees. And the home runs would continue to come but the old Polo Grounds, where both the New York Giants and Yankees called home, was a problem. There were tensions between the teams and the Polo Grounds owner decided not to renew the Yankees lease. The Yankees would build their own stadium in the Bronx which opened in 1923. The stadium was designed to accommodate Ruth to make it easier for the lefthanded batter to hit home runs. He would end that year with 41 home runs and the Yankees would win the title. Yankee Stadium would be called later the “House that Ruth Built.”
He would continue to play with the Yankees until 1934. By then age had begun to take its toll on his skills. He also was well known for his excessive drinking, food binges, and frequently cheating on his wife Helen, who he had married in 1914. They were not seen together often, and the last time was during the 1926 World Series. Since both were Catholic, they never divorced but did separate and lived separate lives until her death in 1929. She was living with a dentist Edward Kinder, and everyone assumed she was his wife. Her death caused headlines. At her funeral, the Babe was seen sobbing. He would later marry Claire Merritt Hodgson, an actress and model. She would impose on him structure which curbed his notorious drinking, binging, and adulterous behavior.
Ruth had hoped to become a team manager in his twilight years; he wanted to be the Yankees manager. However, that was not to be. He was offered by the team owner to manage the Yankees minor league team, but he turned that down. Finally, the Boston Braves, in desperate need to improve attendance, would get Ruth. He was traded to the Boston Braves not as a player but to become team vice-president and assistant manager to its skipper Bill McKechnie. The trade was concluded on 26 February 1935. However, his declining skills showed up in playing. And it turned out his vice president position was nothing more than doing public relations for the team. He also realized that Boston Braves owner Emil Fuchs was not going to make him manager. And that he was supposed to invest some of his own money in the team. He asked to be let go but was persuaded to stay on until after Memorial Day.
And it was on 25 May 1935 Babe Ruth would make the last home run of his career. It was the third game of the series between the Boston Braves and the Chicago Cubs. He would hit a soaring home run that went out of Forbes Field. It sailed over the right field upper deck and out of the park. It was the first time anyone had hit a fair ball out of the park in that area. Ruth was urged to end his career right then, but he had given his word and so went to Cincinnati and Philadelphia. His final appearance in Major League Baseball was in Philadelphia. It was a doubleheader, and the Braves lost both. He retired on 2 June 1935. The Braves had the lowest winning percentage in National League history. The team was broke and so was its owner. The Braves would be handed over to the National League to find new owners.
Ruth wanted to manage a team but that would never come. His wife said he would sit by the phone waiting for a call. Of all the players who were the first inductees to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1936, he was the only one not asked to manage a major league baseball team. Many attributed this to his days when he was drinking and was not always keen on being disciplined as a reason. Whatever the reason, Ruth would never manage or play for a team again. He would continue to be seen in public playing golf and some exhibition games. His next major appearance though was on 4 July 1939 for Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day. The 1927 Yankees team assembled to honor the great first baseman who was forced into retirement when he contracted ALS or often called today, Lou Gehrig’s Disease. Ruth appeared in the 1942 film The Pride of the Yankees as himself. During World War II he made many personal appearances to support the war effort.
In 1946 Ruth was diagnosed with an inoperable tumor at the base of his skull. Because of his fame and wealth, he was able to get treatment and even access to experimental treatments. Taking both drugs and radiation treatments, Ruth hoped it would allow him to live more years. On 27 April 1947 it was Babe Ruth Day as declared by the new commissioner of baseball Happy Chandler. Ruth attended and many of his former teammates were there to speak in his honor. By then his usual load voice had been turned into a soft whisper by the cancer. He would next appear at Yankee Stadium on 13 June 1948 for the 25th-anniversary celebration of Yankee Stadium-the House that Ruth built. He was visibly different looking thin and using a bat as a cane. The photo taken of him by Nat Fein of him standing near home plate, leaning on the cane, and looking out to what is dubbed “Ruthville” became etched in the minds of millions who saw the photo. And it would win a Pulitzer Prize for Fein.
“Babe Ruth Bows Out”, photograph of Babe Ruth during a ceremony at Yankee Stadium to retire his number on 13 June 1948. This photograph won the 1949 Pulitzer Prize for Photography. Author: Nathaniel Fein Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
On 16 August 1948 at 8:01 PM, the Babe, born George Herman Ruth, would pass away at age 53. Many were already outside the hospital during his final days. And his death came quietly as he died in his sleep. Memorial celebrations took three days. His body was taken to the rotunda of Yankee Stadium and visitors could view the Sultan of Swing one last time in his open casket. It would stay there for 2 days. Between 77,000-100,00 are believed to have past the casket. His funeral mass was celebrated by Francis Cardinal Spellman at St. Patrick’s Cathedral. The cathedral was packed and an even larger crowd outside estimated to be around 75,000. He was buried at Gate of Heaven Cemetery in Hawthorne, New York. His second wife is interred next to him.
A granite memorial to Babe Ruth was unveiled on 19 April 1949 near to where similar tributes were erected for Lou Gehrig and Miller Huggins. Due to remodeling between 1974-1975, the area was enclosed and after that became known as Monument Park. When the new Yankee Stadium opened in 2008, Monument Park was moved to the new stadium but unlike the old stadium, not seen from the field. Spectators can visit this area up to 45 minutes before first pitch. His birthplace in Baltimore has been renovated and is now the Babe Ruth Birthplace and Museum.
Ruth’s contribution to baseball was significant. World War I, the Spanish Flu epidemic, and the Black Sox Scandal all contributed to a sour mood in the early 1920’s. And then this larger-than-life figure appears. Unlike Ty Cobb, who was almost always in a sour mood and not always having good relations with fans, Ruth came across as something completely different. He could swing the bat like no other, flamboyant and flashy, totally unstoppable. He became not just the Yankee’s best hitter, bunter, and base stealer but a symbol when people needed to take their minds off from other things. Seeing Ruth hit a home run was a joyous event where thousands cheered. He transcended the sport and became an icon. Home runs were no longer rare but expected. In the old days home runs were rare, but no more.
Ruth also was an American success story having come up from without any advantage of wealth or social standing. You didn’t need to come from wealth to play ball, you just needed the skill to play the game well. And many young kids would make it a dream to head for a baseball team so they too could be a success like Ruth, Gehring and so many others. In a time when most never saw him play, they read the stories of his feats in the newspapers or heard it on the radio once stations started carrying baseball games. And perhaps one of the strangest-and perhaps sweetest ways-he is remembered is the Baby Ruth candy bar. Marketed originally by Curtis Candy Company and named for the daughter of Grover Cleveland, it came out in 1921 and so many assumed it was named for the famous ball player. In 1995 though the Ruth estate (which manages all licensing of Babe Ruth products and images) licensed his likeness for the candy bar. It became the official candy of Major League Baseball in 2005. And in 2018, President Donald Trump awarded Babe Ruth (posthumously) the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
“Babe Ruth Birthplace Sports Legends Museum Baltimore MD,” Babe Ruth Birthplace Museum Baltimore MD, last modified March 19, 2020, https://baberuthmuseum.org/.
Baseball. Florentine Films, The Baseball Film Project, WETA, 1994. A compelling and engrossing documentary on baseball history. This series gives a complete look at the game that is truly American and has a story unlike any other sport. Ken Burn’s really does an excellent job of giving the viewer a full examination of this sport and how deeply engrained it was in the American psyche.
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Allied Occupation sectors in Berlin (1945-1990). Image: Paasikivi via Wikimedia Commons
After World War II, Berlin was divided into four Allied occupation zones: American, British, French and Soviet. Differences emerged as to the future of Germany resulting in the creation of two Germanys and Berlin being split in two. The Americans, British, and French united their sectors to create the Federal Republic of Germany and half of Berlin in 1948. The Soviet backed German Democratic Republic was the other and Berlin, except for that half that was part of West Germany, was inside East Germany.
The Soviet Union decided to blockade West Berlin to force the Allied powers to leave. U.S. President Harry Truman, along with Britain, organized a massive airlift to help West Berlin be stocked with food and fuel. Ultimately the Soviets backed down in May 1949 and life resumed with West Berlin nestled within a country hostile to it. Crossing between the two parts was relatively easy and families were often split into both sectors. West Berlin became a gateway for people desiring to leave the Communist dominated central and eastern Europe. However, those running East Germany started losing significant portions of society from intellectuals to skilled laborers. With approval from Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev (who had suggested the wall), the East German government decided to close off access to West Berlin.
Berlin: Sicherung der Staatsgrenze am 13.8.1961 – Zum Schutz der Grenze eingesetzte Genossen der Kampfgruppen auf der Westseite des Brandenburger Tores. (Translation “Berlin: Securing the state border on 13.8.1961 – Comrades of the combat groups deployed to protect the border on the west side of the Brandenburg Gate.”) Photo: Peter Heinz Junge Source: German Federal Archives via Wikimedia Commons
Beginning on the evening of 12 August 1961, East German soldiers started placing 30 miles of barbed wire through Berlin reducing checkpoints to cross into East Berlin. Western governments protested but did nothing to stop it. On 15 April 1961 concrete replaced barbed wire effectively creating a permanent wall between the two sectors. As the wall was being erected, many moved frantically to get out before it was completed. Buildings that faced into West Berlin were used as escape routes with people waiting to help them escape. Whole neighborhoods that were once easily accessed were now blocked. The effect was startling with roads blocked, mass transit on both sides no longer able move back and forth, and those who worked in West Berlin but lived in East Berlin were cut off from their jobs. Families that lived in both sectors were now cut off. Early on they could wave to their family at certain points, but the East Germans put a stop to it.
The walls would go up to 15 feet high in some places. It followed the border between the two sectors but at some points there was some distance between the legal boundaries. East German guards were given kill orders on anyone trying to flee into West Berlin. In early days it was easier to escape but that would change over time. Buildings that faced into West Berlin were sealed to prevent anyone from escaping from windows, fire escapes, or by lowering themselves down to the ground. Observation towers were erected with constant patrols. In some areas they created a no-man’s land which contained numerous obstacles, mines, gravel to quickly see footprints, and offered a clear field of fire from guards in towers. These death strips, created by tearing down buildings on their side, were a grim feature of the wall. Between the manned guard towers, foot patrols, assorted obstacles such as mines and other deadly tools, it made escape nearly impossible.
The move was not unexpected by many in Washington D.C. or other capitals. It had been assumed for a while something like this might happen. West Berlin mayor Willy Brandt was furious at the lack of a strong response from the United States. The prevailing view in some circles was that this meant neither the East Germans nor the Soviet Union was going to invade Berlin. While no one was happy about it being there, trying to compel East Germany to take it down meant a showdown they did not want to escalate to a major international crisis. The decision was made not to risk an international crisis but use it as a symbol against Communism and what Moscow stood for. It fit neatly into what Winston Churchill called in his famous Sinews of Freedom (‘Iron Curtain’) speech in 1946:
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in many cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow. Athens alone-Greece with its immortal glories-is free to decide its future at an election under British, American and French observation. The Russian-dominated Polish Government has been encouraged to make enormous and wrongful inroads upon Germany, and mass expulsions of millions of Germans on a scale grievous and undreamed-of are now taking place. The Communist parties, which were very small in all these Eastern States of Europe, have been raised to pre-eminence and power far beyond their numbers and are seeking everywhere to obtain totalitarian control. Police governments are prevailing in nearly every case, and so far, except in Czechoslovakia, there is no true democracy. FN 1
President Kennedy denounced the wall and appointed retired general Lucious Clay as special advisor with ambassadorial rank to West Berlin. He was well known and liked in West Germany as he had been the Military Governor of the US Zone of Occupation during the Berlin Blockade. He took the initial steps in the famous Berlin Airlift, so West Berliners were very happy with this choice. And in this appointment Kennedy sent a clear message that he would not back down in supporting West Berlin. Both Clay and Vice President Lyndon Johnson went to West Berlin on Saturday 19 August 1961 and were greeted with great enthusiasm at Tempelhof Airport. On Sunday American troops in West Germany marched through East Germany to arrive in West Berlin. This was allowed by treaty, so neither the East Germans nor the Soviets could stop it. The column of 1,500 soldiers (broken down into five march units) with 491 vehicles marched in full battle gear and stopped at the East German checkpoint at Marienborn where the guards head counted them. The column was 99 miles long and covered 110 miles to reach West Berlin. It was noticed that East German military and police watched the march from the trees on the autobahn. They arrived around noon in West Berlin with Clay and Johnson in front. Over the years troops would continue to be rotated in and out of West Berlin to show East Germany and the Soviets their support.
The German Democratic Republic which had erected the wall claimed it was meant to protect itself from fascist aggression (antifaschistischer Schutzwall). They also claimed that West Berliners were buying items that were state subsidized for its citizens. It was noted, however, that the barrier was to keep East Germans and others from going into West Berlin. West Berliners and others could enter and leave East Berlin through either the famous Checkpoint Charlie or a few others open for such purposes. While some claim that the wall was a success in stemming the migration out (and possibly improved their economy), it became a symbol of Communist oppression. Khrushchev thought the U.S. would not oppose it since Kennedy himself had said early in 1961 he would do nothing to stop it. Kennedy regretted those words, said at the Vienna Summit, to a reporter with the New York Times.
Checkpoint Charlie was on Friedrichstrasse, near Kochstrasse. It was the only crossing between West Berlin and East Berlin that could be used by Americans and other foreigners, and by members of the Allied Forces. The other six checkpoints were for residents of West Berlin or West Germany. Photo: Roger Wollstadt via Wikimedia Commons
For the people of West Berlin, it was a daily fact of life their city was divided. And they could never forget it either. As East Germany solidified the wall, over 5,000 would escape to safety. Most though were either killed or captured. Those captured were often tortured and executed while others rotted in jails. The ruthless East German Ministry for State Security (Stasi), modeled on the Soviet KGB, hunted down suspected collaborators and those assisting people attempting to flee East Germany using a large army of civilian informants. With its own paramilitary force, named for the founder of the forerunner of the KGB, it had a well-earned reputation for tracking down and eliminating those who opposed East Germany.
East Berlin Death Strip as seen from Axel Springer Building, 1984 Photo by George Garrigues Image credit: GeorgeLouis via Wikimedia Commons
By the late 1980’s, the Soviet Union was beginning to collapse and many of its client states were feeling the pressure of those they oppressed. On 12 June 1987 a call would be made to bring down the wall. This would start a movement that would galvanize people all over Germany and the West. The words were simple and done by President Ronald Reagan in West Berlin on the 75th anniversary of the city. He gave the speech 100 yards away from that wall and not far from the Brandenburg Gate.
“Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall.”
The crowd was electrified and it was unexpected. Most presidents said nothing about taking it down being advised it was unwise by the State Department. Reagan though saw this as the most visible sign of Communist oppression, and it should come down. Of course, the Soviets dismissed it as did some European leaders thinking it was too provocative. It lit a fire to challenge Communist leaders in East Germany and elsewhere. Soon demonstrations were taking place with large masses of people making it hard for the Communist leaders to so easily put it down as a few agitators. And it worked to bring down this hated wall. On 9 November 1989 East Germany announced that people in East and West Berlin could cross freely. As word spread, East Germans flocked to the gates but the guards, not yet having received word, did not know what to do. There was confusion and miscommunications, and no one wanted to order any lethal force be done. Finally, the commander of the Bornholmer Strasse border crossing opened the border with little or no identity checking. Many in West Berlin raced to the border hoping to see friends and family cross. It became known as the Night the Berlin Wall Fell. The next day Germans on both sides would begin to dismantle it. And this event would compel other Communist nations that had closed borders with the West to open their gates too. Communism was waning and would soon collapse in East Germany and elsewhere. Ultimately East Germany would dissolve and merge with the Federal Republic of Germany.
Today only historic signs, photos, and tour guides will point out where the infamous wall once stood. You can see the differences in some areas that have the old Soviet style buildings right next to the modern areas that were once part of West Berlin. Rick Steves in his travel show about Berlin shows how much it has changed since those terrible days. The wall put up to keep people from moving from East Germany to the freedom of the west itself is now a memory, with people selling parts of the wall now to collectors.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Berlin Wall | Definition, Length, & Facts,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified August 3, 2025, accessed August 13, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Berlin-Wall.
FN 1 Churchill, Winston. “The Sinews of Peace (Iron Curtain Speech).” International Churchill Society, Missouri, Fulton, United States of America, November 14, 2021. https://winstonchurchill.org/resources/speeches/1946-1963-elder-statesman/the-sinews-of-peace/.
Beginning near midnight on August 8 and in the early morning of August 9 1969, Sharon Tate, the wife of movie director Roman Polanski, was killed along with four others in their Beverly Hills home. The murders made national headlines and two days later a second series of murders would occur. The savage murders were done by followers of Charles Manson, and the murders would make him a criminal icon.
Charles Manson was born in 1934 to an unwed 16-year-old mother; he would never know his father. After his mother was imprisoned for armed robbery, he went to live with an aunt and uncle in West Virginia. He would spend much of his youth getting into trouble and being put into prison in his early adult years. He moved to California in 1967 after being released from jail. In San Francisco he used his charm and other things to attract a small group of followers from the youth rebelling the standards of the day. By 1968, he had become the head of a group who called themselves his “Family.”
Manson’s beliefs were an odd mix of religion, fringe psychology, and even science fiction. He believed in a coming apocalyptic race war that would devastate the country. Blacks would rise up to kill whites but would still need a leader after it was done. Manson would become that leader and his Family would be the nucleus of a new order. He would adopt the term “Helter Skelter,” taken from the Beatles’ record White Album, to refer to this order.
While he was not present when the murders occurred, he certainly planned and directed it. Roman Polanski was not the target on 8 August, and he was out of town during that period of time. His intended target was Terry Melcher, a music producer that had been introduced to him through a chance encounter with Brian Wilson of the Beach Boys. Manson was a singer-songwriter and one of his songs had been performed by them (though uncredited for it). Melcher considered and then decided to not produce a record by him. Melcher had leased the home that Polanski and his pregnant wife Sharon Tate now occupied.
Sharon Tate, 1967 Author Unknown Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Sharon Tate was a fledging actress who had come to fame in Valley of the Dolls (1967) and also in the British horror-comedy The Fearless Vampire Killers (1967). While her husband Roman was off in Europe shooting a movie, Tate, now eight months pregnant, was living in the home with his friend Wojciech Frykowski and his girlfriend Abilgail Folger (coffee heiress). On 8 August Manson ordered Charles “Tex” Watson and several other members of the family to go there and kill everyone as gruesome as possible. They would arrive near midnight or just a little after and encounter Steve Parent, an 18-year-old boy visiting the caretaker, in his car and kill him. Then Watson, Susan Atkins, Patricia Krenwinkel, and Linda Kasabian entered the main house. There were four people in the home-Tate, Frykowski, Folger and celebrity hairstylist Jay Sebring. They were assembled in the living room.
Sebring was both shot and stabbed to death. Frykowski and Folger managed to escape but were tracked down and killed by Krenwinkel and Watson. Sharon Tate was stabbed to death after being hung from a ceiling beam. The rope was found wrapped around her neck and there were no post-mortem injuries found. Her blood was used to write the word “PIG” on the front door. The following night Manson ordered that grocery store executive Leno LaBianca and his wife, Rosemary be murdered. Manson was involved in this action as he and Watson tied up and robbed. He then left with three others of his Family leaving Watson, Leslie van Houten, and Patricia Krenwinkel in the home. They stabbed the couple to death and left words written in blood on the walls.
The murders shocked Los Angeles considering that Frykowski had been stabbed fifty times as well as shot. The police were baffled as to the motives and who the assailants were. The two crimes were not connected at first. There was a belief that a drug transaction gone bad may have led to the gruesome deaths at the Polanski home. What broke the case and connected both murders were the arrests of Manson’s family at the Spahn Ranch in Death Valley for vehicle theft and burning equipment. One of those arrested would implicate Susan Atkins in a murder.
Charles Manson, April 1968 mugshot Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Atkins apparently boasted of the Tate murders to cellmates. All the killers would be arrested including Charles Manson. Although he did not personally commit the murders, he ordered his Family to do them. All were brought to trial in June 1970. Linda Kasabian was given full immunity and was the main prosecution witness. All were convicted of murder and given the death penalty. However, those sentences were changed to life imprisonment when capital punishment was abolished in 1972. Although eligible for parole at various times, none of their requests were granted. Charles Manson would die in prison in 2017 at age 83.
Update Aug 2025
Since the writing of the post, there have been developments regarding the parole of several incarcerated Manson Family members.
Leslie Van Houten, convicted of first-degree murder and whose sentence was commuted to life imprisonment after the death penalty was declared unconstitutional by the California Supreme Court, was paroled in 2023 after serving 50 years in jail. The Parole Board determined that there had been sufficient rehabilitation. Several victim’s families opposed the parole.
Patricia Krenwinkel, who like Van Houten was sentenced to die for first degree murder but commuted to life in prison, was recommended for parole in 2022. Governor Newsom rejected the finding. She was once again recommended for parole in May 2025. However, the process requires 150-day review period where the full California Board of Parole along with the governor to concur for it to be effective. She has been denied parole 14 times.
Bugliosi, V., & Gentry, C. (2001). Helter Skelter: The True Story of the Manson Murders. W. W. Norton & Company. I highly recommend this book as it covers all the details of the case. And a lot of background investigation as well. The author was the actual prosecutor on the case.
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Updated from 2024 with new sources, update on parole, and spelling/grammar corrections.
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