Photograph of painting depicting Franklin’s famous kite and key experiment. Circa 1911. Artist: Charles E. Mills (American, 1856-1956) U.S. Library of Congress, Digital Id#cph 3b42841
On 10 June 1752 Benjamin Franklin conducted his famous–and legendary–experiment on electricity during a thunderstorm. He was not trying to discover electricity but determine the connection between lightning and static electricity
Franklin constructed a kite with a wire at the top to act as a lightning rod. The kite’s bottom used hemp string that once wetted with rain would become a conductor for an electrical charge. And with a silk string attached, he stood in the doorway of the shed as the thunderstorm approached. His son William helped him get the kite airborne. For a while nothing seemed to happen and he was ready to give up when he noticed several loose strands of hemp were erect. As he moved his finger near the key he had attached, he felt electricity. Using a Leyden jar, the static electricity was collected to be discharged later.
He reported his experiment in the Pennsylvania Gazette (19 October 1752) documenting what he had learned of the connection between lightning and static electricity. Up to this point in time, it was thought electricity consisted of two opposite forces. Franklin determined it was instead a common element and fluid leading to the single fluid theory. Simply put, when you charge something (like a car battery or something similar), you have a positive charge (+) that flows to the negative (-). Franklin created new language that we still use today to describe how this force is used:
Battery
Charge
Condenser
Conductor
Plus
Minus
A similar experiment had been conducted in France by Thomas-François Dalibard a year earlier. A year later Georg Wilhelm Richmann attempted the same thing in St. Petersburg. The outcome though was tragic: he was struck by ball lightning and died. Ball lightning is rare and scientists to this day are baffled by its properties. Franklin developed the lightning rod because of this experiment. This device allows lightning to pass harmlessly through the rod and cables into the ground avoiding any conductive material. Houses and buildings could be protected from lightning strikes. From there it would be used on ships and much later installed on airplanes to protect them as well. Franklin received the Copley Award from the Royal Society for his experiments.
Over the years his experiment got mixed up and rewritten becoming a myth. Instead of standing in the shed, he was outside and the kite was struck by lightning. Except that never happened yet it was taught in schools as fact for quite a long time. Mythbusters took on the myth and showed if Franklin had done it as the myth said he did, he would have been killed. They did prove that his real experiment was valid as they flew a kite on a sunny day and got static electricity.
Pre-1692 Port Royal Illustration Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
According to the Greek philosopher Plato, Atlantis was sunk as retribution by the gods. Today most historians and archaeologists consider Atlantis a myth (but likely based on the actual demise of the island of Thera and resultant decline of the Minoans), but the sinking of Port Royal into the Caribbean Sea is true.
Port Royal was founded in 1494 in southeast Jamaica on the peninsula of what was later called Kingston Harbor. The Spanish did not think it important at the time, but the island was strategic due its location to a major trade route. Sugar cane was the important crop and the island remained under Spanish control until the British seized the island in 1655. The British would build extensively in Port Royal (originally called Cagway) adding houses, shops, warehouses, and two forts. It became the unofficial capitol of Jamaica (Spanish Town was the capital until Kingston). Port Royal, due to its location on the Spanish Main, would become the home of privateers. Back then since most navies were small, governments would commission ship captains to wage war on their enemies at sea. Privateers, armed with the Letters of Marque that authorized them to act for the crown, allowed them to attack a country’s enemies on the seas. Privateers could seize ships and their cargoes to be sold for profit. The difference between a pirate and a privateer was simple. A pirate operated without a Letter of Marque and was a menace to all subject to death when caught.
Port Royal became a wealthy city due to the privateering and one of the largest cities in the Caribbean with over 6,500 people at its height. Its reputation as both gaudy for its display of wealth, and for its loose morals, made it one of the most notorious cities in the world at the time. Privateers would spend money in taverns (there was one for every ten people), gambling, and prostitution. Merchants of all kinds also dipped into the privateer purse by selling all kinds of products to them. The city ran out of room, so they built a landfill. While there was some advice to use wood, many choose instead to build with brick not realizing they were building on sand and not bedrock. By 1692 the need for privateers had ebbed. When the British signed the Treaty of Madrid in 1670, it ended their need to raid Spanish ships and cities. The famous privateer of the era, Henry Morgan, ended up serving in the Jamaican government and even being governor at times. Privateers could still use Port Royal, but they had to be careful to never attack British ships if they had a Letter of Marque from another power. The French still issued them in their war against Spain, though tensions between Britain and France were often difficult as well.
Pirates also had emerged as a new threat as they attacked everyone. Anti-piracy laws were soon enacted, and Port Royal was no haven for them. They would be shot at if they approached, their ships seized, and its captain and crew faced death or imprisonment. Port Royal, which had grown wealthy off the privateers, now wanted to end its bad reputation as a city for extreme drunkenness, debauchery, and illicit wealth. But on 7 June 1692, a series of three earthquakes hit starting at 11:43 a.m. All of Jamaica was shaken violently but the worst was at Port Royal. Buildings on the landfill or over water collapsed and sank. Then the tsunami arrived, putting half of the city under water. Spanish Town was completely destroyed and landslides inland claimed lives.
An estimated 3,000 people died from the earthquakes, tsunami, and landslides. Many died later from looters, injuries, and diseases. Small parts of the city did survive and attempts to rebuild were unsuccessful. As news spread that the wicked city was gone, many cheered its demise. Kingston became the new center of commerce and trade from that point on. Today it is known as the city that sank and a world heritage site. Tourists now visit the site and scientists of all kinds still study what happened. Liquefaction is one of the culprits of its demise, something that now explains how some cities built were destroyed in ancient times such as Helike in Greece or Thonis-Heracleion in Egypt.
Map showing shoreline changes caused by the 1692 Port Royal earthquake Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Vallar, Cindy. “Pirates & Privateers: The History of Maritime Piracy – Pirate Havens Port Royal.” Accessed June 8, 2026. http://www.cindyvallar.com/havens4.html.
Documentaries & Films
The History Guy: History Deserves to Be Remembered. “Pirates and the Earthquake That Destroyed Port Royal.” Video. YouTube, June 7, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EypOHCv2JsY.
National Geographic Wild. “Best Documentary History of Port Royal Underwater Cities.” YouTube, 22 Jan. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=B1VLUevIWIs.
Midway Atoll, 24 November 1941 Public Domain (Official U.S. Navy photo)
Background
June 1942 saw the Empire of Japan dominate in Asia ruling a sizable empire. It began in the late 19th century when it seized Formosa (Taiwan) in 1895. The conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War (1905-1905) saw it acquire Korea. It would take Manchuria (renamed Manchukuo) in 1931. China was invaded in 1937 and seized the key cities of Shanghai, Nanking, and Peking. When France fell to Germany in 1940, Japan invaded to prevent it being used to supply China. Vichy France made a deal with Japan to keep it neutral but allow it within their sphere of power. Japan attacked and conquered Hong Kong after heavy fighting on Christmas Day 1941. Fortress Singapore, so named because of its impressive frontal defense, was defeated when the Japanese army came from the lightly defended rear (what was believed to be an impassable jungle) and conquered it on 15 Feb 1942. The Dutch East Indies (Indonesia today) were conquered by March 1942 and The Philippines in May. Japan, supported by local independence groups, also invaded Burma in 1941 and would finish in April 1942. Japan would use Burma to attack British held India. The Japanese began attacking northern Australia to prevent it from being used as a staging area.
Japan had succeeded in tossing out the imperial powers and absorbing them into its own empire. The only major power they were concerned with was the United States and the attack on 7 December 1941 had destroyed many of their battleships. Considered a success by the Japanese, they had hoped it would force the Americans to stay out of the conflict. However, the U.S. desire to fight back surprised them. The Doolittle Raid of 18 April 1942 where American bombers bombed Tokyo (they flew off aircraft carriers to accomplish this) stunned the Japanese government. And the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942 made them realize they had to defeat the American fleet. They decided to draw out the American fleet for a battle near Midway Island for a decisive battle. They saw themselves as the masters of the Pacific; the Battle of Midway would change that forever.
The Broken Japanese Code
A special naval intelligence unit called HYPO had broken it in March resulting in much of the plan becoming known to the U.S. They learned that the attack in Alaska was a feint to draw naval forces away from being used at Midway. They also learned that behind the Japanese carrier strike force was a large destroyer force sailing to meet them and deliver a decisive blow to any remaining U.S. ships after the attack on Midway. The American task force assembled were three aircraft carriers– Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown – seven heavy cruisers, 1 light cruiser, 15 destroyers, and 16 submarines. The Yorktown had to be quickly patched up after its recent encounter with the Japanese and needed some new aircraft and pilots. Admiral William Halsey was put in charge but due to illness had to be replaced by Rear Admiral Raymond Spruance. Spruance would command the Enterprise and Hornet along with her support vessels. Rear Admiral Frank Fletcher was in command of Yorktown.
The Japanese committed four carriers, 2 battleships, 2 heavy cruisers and 1 light cruiser, 12 destroyers, 13 submarines, and 16 floatplanes. Their support force were 4 heavy cruisers, 2 destroyers, and 12 floatplanes. The U.S. had 233 carrier-based aircraft to the Japanese 248. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, who had planned the attack on Pearl Harbor, designed the complex Midway battle. Part of his plan involved dispersing his forces so that they would not be readily seen by the Americans. He also believed he would be facing only two carriers, the Enterprise and Hornet, because th?e Yorktown had been badly damaged at the Battle of Coral Sea. However, the Americans had learned most of the plan from the decoded transmissions. And the planned dispersal proved more difficult as it required the support ships to keep up with them, which proved to be more difficult than originally thought.
The Battle
On 4 June 1942, Admiral Nagumo aboard the carrier Akagi launched the initial air attack on Midway composed of dive and torpedo bombers escorted by Zeroes. PBYs launched that morning from Midway would sight two Japanese carriers and radar picked up incoming Japanese fighters. Midway sent up unescorted bombers to delay the attack while the fighters remained behind to defend Midway. Midway came under heavy attack and its air interceptors took a heavy beating fighting the Japanese. Anti-aircraft fire from ground personnel proved to be more precise. Midway took a beating but was still functional and could launch planes.
Meanwhile scouting reports flying ahead of the American carriers placed the Japanese carriers at the extreme range for air attack. Making matters more difficult was the fact that Japanese scout planes had sighted the American fleet. Despite the extreme range, Spruance ordered the planes to be launched and increased the speed of the task force to close the distance. The torpedo squadrons left first but due to mechanical problems in launching the dive-bombers, had to fly unescorted. They would reach the Japanese and be quickly shot out of the sky by Japanese Zeroes and anti-aircraft fire. Not one torpedo launched did any serious damage.
The pilots of the U.S. Navy Torpedo Squadron 8 (VT-8) aboard the aircraft carrier USS Hornet (CV-8), circa mid-May 1942, shortly before battle of Midway. They flew unescorted by fighters to attack the Japanese aircraft carriers. The slow moving planes were no match for the fast Zeroes that attacked them. Not one torpedo they launched did any damage. However because of their bravery, the Zeroes were out of position when the American dive-bombers arrived allowing them to bomb the Japanese carriers. Ensign George Gay was the only survivor. Photo: May 1942 Source: Naval History and Heritage Command, digital ID NH 93595 Public Domain
Admiral Nagumo had a problem. His planes returned from Midway and were being re-armed for the next bombing run. But he had just gotten a report that the American navy was in the area. Its exact composition was unknown. So, he ordered a change in the ordnance for the attack planes. Instead of attacking land-based targets they would arm to destroy ships. The result was there a lot of ordnance out on the deck on the carriers where this was being done. With the Japanese combat air patrol out of position having dealt with the torpedo squadrons they were not able to intercept the next wave of attack. American dive-bomber squadrons from Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown would seemingly arrive nearly at the same time. It was one of the greatest coincidences in military history. Three Japanese carriers–Akagi, Kaga, and Soryu–would be sunk that day. The surviving carrier Hiryu counter-attacked by sending our air squadrons to attack any American carrier they could find. They found Yorktown and dropped three bombs heavily damaging the ship but not sinking it. Admiral Fletcher moved over to cruiser Astoria while it was being repaired. A second air attack an hour later would further damage Yorktown. She would later sink when being towed on 6 June by a torpedo fired by a Japanese submarine, which also sank the destroyer Hamman.
The Japanese believed they had turned the tide and would be able to go on with the Midway plan. They knew a huge fleet of destroyers and support craft was on the way. However, the Hiryu was found late in the afternoon. An air attack by Enterprise and Yorktown bombers resulted in four or possibly five bombs seriously crippling her. The fires prevented any planes taking off or landing. The crew would evacuate and later Hiryu would sink. Spruance, not wanting to risk exposure to Japanese forces and wanting to protect Midway, would retire to the west. Admiral Yamamoto still wanted to invade Midway and proceeded on course. Had Spruance not changed course, the remaining two carriers of the American fleet would have been exposed to Yamamoto’s destroyers. Spruance would go after the stragglers. Yamamoto ultimately ordered the fleet back to Japan not knowing the full composition of the American forces that might be pursuing.
The U.S. Navy lost 1 carrier, 1 destroyer, 150 aircraft and 307 killed. Many of those killed were from the torpedo squadrons that lost 80% or more of their pilots. The Japanese lost 4 carriers, 1 heavy cruiser, 248 aircraft and 3,057 killed. It was a major victory for the U.S., but most Japanese would never learn the full details until after the war was over. The survivors of the sunken carriers and those aboard the ships that survived would be quarantined or sent on duty assignments far away from home. None of the senior officers would face any serious repercussions. Only those at the very top were informed as to what really happened. Only the Emperor and the top naval officers knew the full details. The public was told it was a great victory, and the Imperial Japanese Army believed the navy was in good condition. However, Admiral Yamamoto and the other senior leaders of the Japanese Navy knew the truth. The United States would soon come out stronger than it had been before the attack on Pearl Harbor.
For the United States it would prove the value of intelligence gathering and codebreaking. It would continue to be an important part of the war effort and would yield even more useful information down the road with dire consequences for Admiral Yamamoto. The code breaking led directly to his plane being shot down in 1943 as payback for Pearl Harbor.
(Please note this is a very condensed description of the Battle of Midway and had a lot more stages in it than reflected in this writing).
The Federal File. “Destination Point Luck Voices From Midway – Battle of Midway WWII Documentary.” Video. YouTube, April 24, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vqpk4Rmfbm8.
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“Midway Is East.” Archive.org, 1952, archive.org/details/VAS_04_Midway_Is_East. This is episode 4 from the excellent Victory at Sea series which was shown in 1952-1953. Using archived footage along with excellent music, the series conveyed the scope of naval warfare in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Watch the entire series if you can.
“The Battle of Midway (Short 1942) ? 6.1 | Documentary, Short, War.” IMDb, 14 Sept. 1942, www.imdb.com/title/tt0034498. This is a documentary made in 1942 right after the battle with John Ford directing. It uses actual footage and uses actors to voice over parts of accounts of the sailors and aviators that participated. It is available (f0r free) from some streaming services like Tubi. You can also view it on YouTube (the version linked here is the colorized version, not the original Black & White).
The Federal File. “Destination Point Luck Voices From Midway – Battle of Midway WWII Documentary.” YouTube, 24 Apr. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vqpk4Rmfbm8.
Midway. Directed by Jack Smight, The Mirisch Corporation, Universal Pictures, 1976. This 1976 movie starring Charlton Heston uses old stock footage and pushes the real historical figures in the background while pushing a fictional story line. While entertaining, many will find it lacking in a lot of real historical depth. The subplot involving Heston’s son in the movie makes it more of a soap opera at times. Worth watching to see some great actors but not so much if you are looking for something that will relate the real story of the battle.
Midway. Directed by Roland Emmerich, Summit Entertainment and others, 2019. This 2019 version significantly was better in terms of better effects and depicting events leading up and the Battle of Midway itself. Most of the characters are based on historical ones. Reviews were mixed on this one. Some thought it was a decent movie, but the story itself was not compelling. Rotten Tomatoes has it as 42% like it and IMDB users rate it as 6.7. It is certainly more historically accurate and shows the Japanese side (with actual Japanese actors speaking Japanese).
June calendar from the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry From Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry Folio 6, verso: June Between 1412 and 1416, circa 1440 or between 1485 and 1486 Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
June is the 6th month and one of four months with only 30 days. June is named for the Roman goddess Juno. Juno was high on the pantheon of Roman gods; one of three original gods of Rome. She was the goddess of marriage, fidelity, childbirth, and youth. She was similar but also different in certain aspects than her Greek counterpart Hera. June heralds the start of summer with the Summer Solstice in the Northern Hemisphere (and the Winter Solstice in the Southern Hemisphere). Days are longer and warmer making it good for growing crops and for kids, long days of play now that school is out.
Midsummer is celebrated near the Summer Solstice (21-22) or on St. John’s Day on 24 June in Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Father’s Day is celebrated globally but on different days (the U.S. on the 3rd Sunday in June). Juneteenth, a U.S. federal holiday to celebrate the reading of Emancipation Proclamation read in Galveston, Texas, freeing enslaved people on 19 June.
Midsummer bonfire in Norway, 23 June 2014 Photo: Kora27 via Wikimedia Commons
June is a popular month for marriages and festivities, continuing a tradition that comes from the Romans who thought marrying in June was lucky. While summer does not begin astronomically until the solstice, meteorologists use June 1 as the start of the season. The U.S. Hurricane Season also begins on June 1st as well. The birthstones are pearl, alexandrite, and moonstone, with rose and honeysuckle as the flowers.
