Monthly Archives: May 2026

History

Remembering History: Japan Defeats Russia at Battle of Tsushima Strait (27 May 1905)

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Admiral Togo on the bridge of the Battleship Mikasa.
Tojo Shotaro (1865–1929)
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

On 27 May 1905, the Russian Baltic fleet engaged the Japanese navy at Tsushima Strait, which lies between Korea and Japan. The battle was a decisive win for the Japanese with the Russians losing 34 ships. It shifted the balance of power in Asia for years to come.

Background

The Russia-Japan War of 1904-1905 was the first major war of the 20th century. Russia was large territorially but due to harsh winters needed a warm water port for its navy to operate. They expanded into both China and Korea to acquire resources and establish a naval base at Port Arthur (Lüshunkou District today) in Liaodong Peninsula in China. Japan was not happy with Russia expanding into these areas and that it had supported the Chinese during the 1894 conflict. Japan tried to work out a deal to allow Russia access to Korea under Japanese control. The Russians did not agree, and Japan decided to attack Russia. Since international law at the time did not require a declaration of war prior to an attack, they delivered notice on the very day of the attack to the Russians.

Japan had quickly modernized and westernized once it opened for trade. The arrival of Commodore Perry in 1853 put pressure on Japan to open to the world. It was still ruled by Tokugawa shogunate (military rule) which had begun in the 1600’s. Foreigners were not allowed though a Dutch trading post was allowed owing to a special connection created by William Adams. He was an English navigator for the Dutch fleet that sailed to Japan. Williams became an advisor to the shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu and stayed in Japan for the remainder of his life. He was the basis for the fictional John Blackthorne in the novel Shogun. He did become samurai, a rare honor for a foreigner and Hatamoto.

By the mid-19th century though the shogunate was showing its age. While it controlled contact with foreigners, many had been exposed to Western technology and ideas. Internally things were starting to come apart. A series of famines led to unrest and the belief the shogunate was unable to cope. Also, the fact they were bullied by other nations (particularly the United States) to open their borders for trade led to the fall of the shogunate in 1867. This led to a period called the Meji Restoration where power was restored to the throne. It brought about an end to the feudal system and a cabinet style of government. Trade with the ?West ramped up along with the desire to create a military that would not only defend them but make them a power as well.

The surprise attack on 8 February 1904 shocked the world. The Russian military did not believe Japan would attack, and if it did would be easily repelled.  Under the command of Admiral Togo Heihachiro, the Japanese fleet sank ships and bombarded the city. While Russian ships further in the bay were protected, the Japanese bombarded the city and attempted to blockade (this proved difficult). However, the Japanese did not give up and ultimately kept pounding the city for months preventing any military aid (from land or sea) to aid the Russians. The city would surrender formally in January 1905 when General Anatoly Stessel surrendered to the Japanese seeing it was no longer worth defending (it surprised his superiors in St. Petersburg). His surrender was controversial as he still had large stores of ammunition available to him. He would be court martialed later for cowardice and sentenced to death (later changed to 10 years imprisonment). He would be pardoned later by Czar Nicholas II.

Believing the Russian navy could still defeat the Japanese, the Czar created the Third Pacific Fleet and joining with the Second Fleet would become the Baltic Fleet that would sail 18,000 miles from Kronstadt (St. Petersburg) to meet the Japanese at Tsushima Strait. Admiral Togo had plenty of time to prepare to meet the Baltic fleet. Togo had already wiped out the Russian fleet at Port Arthur. A naval squadron from Vladivostok had proven its effectiveness by sinking Japanese transports. However, in August 1904 a confrontation with Japanese forces resulted in the sinking of one heavy armored cruiser. The other two ships had been severely damaged and had to return to port unable to fight again for a long while. During the interim, Togo sent many of his ships back to their home ports for repairs. And he spent time training the crews for the upcoming battle.

This meant the Russians were facing well rested and trained crews, along with ships that had been repaired and ready for battle. Togo’s plan was to trap the Baltic fleet in the Tsushima Strait and to engage them in several operations. On the Russian side, Admiral Rojestvensky and his staff argued on the best course to attack the Japanese. Ultimately, he decided on Tsushima on May 17 and ordered the fleet to proceed. Togo had built watchtowers all over the area and manned to watch for the Russian arrival. Over 70 ships, many converted commercial vessels, were sent out to watch and report on any Russian movement. Early on the morning of 27 May, confirmation was finally made of the Russian fleet and that it was headed for Tsushima Strait.

The battle would last for two days and was decisive. Of the 38 Russian ships that were in battle, 34 were sunk or captured (some were interned in neutral ports). One transport and two destroyers managed to get to Vladivostok; one cruiser managed to get all the way back to Kronstadt. Togo lost three torpedo boats, but the Russian Pacific fleet had been destroyed. It is considered one of the greatest naval victories in modern history.

Russian Cruiser Aurora survived the Battle of Tsushima and sailed to Manila. There it was interned by the United States and later returned to Russia. It had a pivotal role in the October Revolution that brought the Communists to power in Russia. It served as a training ship in World War II and has been a museum ship since 1957. It had to be extensively rebuilt due to serious deterioration. It was recommissioned in 2013 as the flagship of the Russian Navy and is docked in Saint Petersburg.
Photo: Nikoniko962 via Wikimedia Commons

Aftermath

The destruction of the Russian Baltic Fleet astonished and shocked Europe and America. Japan now was a major force in Asia to be reckoned with. President Theodore Roosevelt of the United States negotiated a peace treaty between the two in August 1905 (Treaty of Portsmouth). The balance of power in Asia was a central issue since the war involved (directly and indirectly) China, Korea, Europe, and the United States. Russia would give up its claims in Korea and China and recognize Japan as the dominant power in Korea. The colonial powers in Asia were now on notice. Japan was now in the game, and you ignored it at your peril.

After both Russia and Japan agreed to discuss peace terms, President Theodore Roosevelt chose Portsmouth, New Hampshire as its location. It was chosen for its cooler temperature in August as Washington D.C would normally be sweltering. The delegations met on from Aug 9-30 1905. Both sides had reasons to make a deal. The war had been unpopular in Russia and Japan was suffering economically from the war. The Japanese got the territorial concessions it wanted but failed to get reparations from Russia. The treaty was signed on 5 September 1905 and later ratified by both governments. The above photo has the Russian delegation on the far side of the table and the Japanese on the near side.
Photo: P. F. Collier & Son
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Anti-Japanese sentiments would grow because of the war. In California, the Alien Land Act was passed in 1913. This law prohibited the ownership or leasing of land by those banned from citizenship under federal law. Many Japanese immigrants had bought agricultural land to raise crops, so the law was to target them (it also affected Chinese and others as well). To get around it, many Japanese put their American born male children as owners. Such laws were common in many Western states. And legislatures enacted restrictions on that later as well. The U.S. Supreme Court declared such laws constitutional and would remain in force until the 1950’s. Then they were either rescinded or made invalid when the Supreme Court ruled that they were unconstitutional (Oyama v?. California (1948) and Fuji Sei v. State of California (1952). During the time they were in place, many Japanese Americans were forced to give up their farms and relocate elsewhere.

Russian prestige was hit hard by the disastrous military defeat. Other powers (Britain, France, Germany and to a lesser extent the United States), no longer viewed Russia as a strong military power. Russia was already considered a backward country where much of its population was agrarian with a thin industrial stratum of industrial workers. They had serfdom-where landless peasants were forced to serve nobility who owned lands-until 1861. The large cities by 1900 had become overcrowded with industrial workers who were not paid very much. A combination of costly wars starting in the last century, periods of famine, and general resentment against the monarchy all contributed to the Russian Revolution of 1905. While the Czar did implement reforms to placate the populace, its entry into World War I with food rations, inflation, and again military defeats ended the monarchy, brought a short period of a moderate government that nominally kept the war going, and then it was replaced by a repressive Communist government after the revolution in 1918.

Sources

Kubata, K. “The Battle of Tsushima, 1905.” Naval Historical Society of Australia. Last modified June 5, 2014. Accessed May 27, 2026. https://navyhistory.au/the-battle-of-tsushima-1905/.

“Russo-Japanese War: Dates & Treaty of Portsmouth.” HISTORY. Last modified May 28, 2025. Accessed May 27, 2026. https://www.history.com/articles/russo-japanese-war.

The University of Texas at Austin Department of History. “Alien Land Laws in California (1913 & 1920).” Immigration History. Last modified August 20, 2019. Accessed May 27, 2026. https://immigrationhistory.org/item/alien-land-laws-in-california-1913-1920/.

“Portsmouth Peace Treaty.” PortsmouthPeaceTreaty.Org. Accessed May 27, 2026. https://www.portsmouthpeacetreaty.org/.

 

Revision History

2026: Editing and correction of punctuation errors.

History

Babe Ruth Hits Final Home Run (25 May 1935)

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Babe Ruth in his first season with the New York Yankees during a game in 1920.
Public Domain (via Wikimedia Commons)

Babe Ruth, who had spent the best years of his career with the New York Yankees, was released by them in February 1935. The Boston Braves picked him up and was led to believe it would lead to managing the team. However, most of what he was asked to do was promotional, which disappointed him. At forty, his career playing baseball was coming to an end.

On 25 May 1935 the Boston Braves were playing against the Pirates. It was a game to be long remembered. By the seventh inning, the Pirates still led 7-5 despite two home runs earlier by Ruth. Fans were excited to see Ruth and cheered him on as be came to bat. When the ball hit the bat, fans remembered that smack that indicated he had hit a home run. The ball cleared Forbes Field right field roof and the fans roared in delight. As he ran the bases, he saluted the fans with his cap. The Braves tied the game in the inning, but the Pirates would score three more times and in the eighth add one more run for a final score of 11-7. Ruth’s record of 714 home runs would not be broken for forty years.

“Babe Ruth Bows Out”, photograph of Babe Ruth during a ceremony at Yankee Stadium to retire his number on 13 June 1948. This photograph won the 1949 Pulitzer Prize for Photography.
Author: Nathaniel Fein
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Ruth played a few more games but retired from baseball on 4 June 1935. His dream of one day managing a baseball team would never happen. He would work briefly as a first base coach for the Dodgers in 1938 but that would be his last baseball position. He would appear at exhibition games and still drew crowds. He appeared at the Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day at Yankee Stadium on 4 July 1930 to honor his former teammate forced to retire due to ALS (or also known as Lou Gehrig’s Syndrome). During World War II, he made many appearances to support the war including the 1943 exhibition game for the Army-Navy Relief Fund at Yankee Stadium. He also became a celebrity golfer often drawing crowds in charity tournaments.

He passed away from throat cancer on 16 August 1948 at Memorial Hospital in New York. Many had gathered outside holding vigil during his final hours. After his death, the casket was taken to Yankee Stadium so that fans could pay their last respects. It was there for two days and around 77,000 people paid their respects. His funeral at St. Patrick’s Cathedral was presided by Cardinal Spellman and was filled and thousands (estimated to be 75,000 total) outside. A monument in his honor was erected at Yankee Stadium. When the stadium was renovated, it and other monuments became part of the new Monument Park that can be seen today.

Sources

“Babe Ruth Hits Last Home Run.” HISTORY. Last modified May 28, 2025. Accessed May 26, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/may-25/babe-ruth-hits-last-home-run.

“May 25, 1935: Babe Ruth Smashes Three Homers in Final Hurrah.” Last modified October 26, 2020. Accessed May 26, 2026. https://sabr.org/gamesproj/game/may-25-1935-ruth-smashes-3-homers-in-final-hurrah/.

Stiner, Kevin. “Ruth Adds to Legend With Three Homers for Braves.” National Baseball Hall of Fame. Accessed May 26, 2026. https://baseballhall.org/discover/inside-pitch/ruth-adds-to-legend-with-three-homers-for-braves.

Videos

Old Ball Game Studios. “Babe Ruth’s Final Game: A Legend Bids Goodbye.” Video. YouTube, November 15, 2024. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lchmkB-e79w.

 

Holidays

Memorial Day (U.S.)

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Today is Memorial Day, a day set aside to remember those who gave all to serve this country. At national cemeteries and smaller ones around the country, flags and flowers have been placed to remember them. We also remind ourselves that freedom is not easily granted, often requires great sacrifice. President Lincoln made note of this in his famous 1863 Gettysburg Address:

But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate, we can not consecrate, we can not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

God of power and mercy,
you destroy war and put down earthly pride.
Banish violence from our midst and wipe away our tears,
that we may all deserve to be called your sons
and daughters.
Keep in your mercy those men and women
who have died in the cause of freedom
and bring them safely
into your kingdom of justice and peace.
We ask this though Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen
(Memorial Day Prayer, USCCB)

 

Gravestones at Arlington National Cemetery decorated by U.S. flags on Memorial Day weekend.
Photo:Public domain
Arlington National Cemetery, Memorial Day, 1924
Photo: U.S. Library of Congress, digital id npcc 11495

 

History

Remembering History: German & Italy Sign Pact of Steel (22 May 1939)

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The signing of the Pact of Steel on 22 May 1939 in Berlin
Photographer unknown
Public Domain/WIkimedia Commons

On 22 May 1939, Germany and Italy signed the Pact of Friendship and Alliance that became known later as the Pact of Steel. This began the formal military and political alliance between the two countries. Initially Japan was to be part of the agreement but there was disagreement on the focus of the pact. Germany and Italy wanted it aimed at the British Empire and France, while Japan wanted the Soviet Union to be the focus. The agreement was signed without Japan but would later join in September 1940.

The agreement brought together two countries that opposed each other in World War I. It also required each country to come to the aid of the other if it were in armed conflict with another nation. Neither party could make peace without the agreement of the other. One of the assumptions of the agreement was that war would start in three years at the latest. Italy needed the time to get its war production into high gear. The agreement was for ten years but there was some concern within the Italian government the agreement would suppress Italian autonomy. The agreement was still signed despite these objections, which also came from Mussolini’s son-in-law, Galeazzo Ciano, who was the Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Hitler, however, would soon declare his intentions of invading Poland. Mussolini was not happy he was not consulted on this, nor about the Molotov-Ribbentrop Agreement. Italian forces did not commit fully to war until June 1940 when German forces had defeated British and French forces with lightning speed. Italy seized Nice as its prize. Other countries it tried to invade proved more difficult. Greek partisans brought the Italian force to a halt. Germany would intervene to help there and in Yugoslavia where Italian troops also pushed back by partisans. A disastrous attack on British Egypt from Italian Libya required German assistance as well. The economic consequences of the war were bad for most Italians generating widespread resentment that would lead one day to Mussolini’s fall from power in 1943.

Nations of the Pact of Friendship and Alliance (Pact of Steel)

  • Germany (1939)
  • Italy (1939
  • Japan (1940)

Nations That Joined the Axis Powers

  • Hungary (1940)
  • Romania (1940)
  • Slovakia (1940)
  • Bulgaria (1941)
  • Yugoslavia (1941)
  • Croatia (1941)
  • Finland (1941)

Sources

“The Pact of Steel Is Signed; the Axis Is Formed.” HISTORY.Com. Last modified January 31, 2025. Accessed May 22, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/may-22/the-pact-of-steel-is-signed-the-axis-is-formed.

“The ‘Pact of Steel’: The Signing of The German-Italian Military Alliance in The New Reich Chancellery (May 22, 1939).” German History in Documents and Images. Accessed May 22, 2026. https://germanhistorydocs.org/en/nazi-germany-1933-1945/the-pact-of-steel-the-signing-of-the-german-italian-military-alliance-in-the-new-reich-chancellery-may-22-1939.

“Axis Alliance in World War II | Holocaust Encyclopedia.” Holocaust Encyclopedia. Accessed May 22, 2026. https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/axis-powers-in-world-war-ii.

“The Pact of Steel – the Pact of Friendship and Alliance Between Germany and Italy, May 22, 1939.” Historical Resources About the Second World War. Last modified September 10, 2008. Accessed May 22, 2026. https://historicalresources.wordpress.com/2008/09/10/the-pact-of-steel-the-pact-of-friendship-and-alliance-between-germany-and-italy-may-22-1939/.

 

History

Remembering History: Lewis & Clark Expedition Begins (14 May 1804)

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[This has been rewritten from 2025  and includes more sources along with suggested reading.]

Map of the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806)
Image: Goszei via Wikimedia Commons

In 1803 the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory from France for the price of 3 cents per acre for 828,000 miles of land. Next to the purchase of Alaska from Russia later in the century, it is one of the best land deals in United States history.

Outside of general descriptions, the exact contents of the territory were unknown. President Jefferson commissioned a “Corps of Discovery” to be headed up by Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark. It was not only to map the new land purchase but to explore the Pacific Northwest as well to see if any possible Northwest Passage (a water route between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans) existed. Meriwether Lewis, who had both military and frontier experience and was Jefferson’s private secretary was selected by President Jefferson. William Clark, who had both military and frontier experience, had notable skills in navigation and cartography, was selected as co-captain by Lewis as he had served under him.

On 14 May 1804 the Corps of Discovery left St. Louis with 45 men (soldiers, interpreters, and boatmen) to begin their journey into the newly purchased American interior. Traveling up the Missouri River in six canoes and two longboats, they would winter in Dakota. Then they headed into Montana encountering the Rocky Mountains and met the Shoshone on the other side of the Continental Divide. They purchased horses from them and continued into the Bitterroot Mountains, down the rapids of the Clearwater and Snake Rivers, reaching the Columbia River and eventually the Pacific Ocean arriving on 8 November 1805. They paused there for the winter and headed back to St. Louis in the spring arriving on 23 September 1806.

They had traveled an astonishing 8,000 miles compiling detailed information that gave the first detailed look on the new territory and on the Pacific Northwest as well. They catalogued everything they saw on the journey–plants, animals, birds, minerals, people encountered, the mountains and rivers they saw–making their report one of the most consequential in the history of the United States. The report confirmed the newly purchased land had navigable rivers, land for people to settle on with plenty of game. They documented 122 animal species and 178 plants that were unknown till then. Their sketches, descriptions, and samples they brought back would excite the scientific world. And their detailed maps with coordinates would help further explorers and settlers. Other explorers like John C. Fremont found that their calculations as to the locations of rivers and other places were reliable; there were no major revisions and only minor ones that were done.

During their journey they encountered many diseases and ailments but only one person, Sergeant Charles Floyd, died during the journey from what now is believed to be acute appendicitis. A medical kit supplied by President Jefferson helped them on their journey, but sometimes contaminated water consumed on the journey resulted in occasional dysentery outbreaks. In addition to the medical kit, they did use natural remedies for fevers and other issues. Despite often poor sanitation and dealing with mosquitoes, they made the journey and returned home.

Map of Lewis and Clark’s Track, Across the Western Portion of North America
“History Of The Expedition Under The Command Of Captains Lewis And Clark, To The Sources Of The Missouri, Thence Across The Rocky Mountains And Down The River Columbia To The Pacific Ocean” by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark et al. 1814
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

Sources

Buckley, Jay H. “Lewis and Clark Expedition.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed May 19, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/event/Lewis-and-Clark-Expedition.

Peck, David J. “Wilderness Medicine.” Discover Lewis & Clark. Last modified March 27, 2023. Accessed May 19, 2026. https://lewis-clark.org/sciences/medicine/wilderness-medicine/.

“Corps of Discovery – Gateway Arch National Park (U.S. National Park Service).” Accessed May 19, 2026. https://www.nps.gov/jeff/learn/historyculture/corps-of-discovery.htm.

“Lewis and Clark: Expedition, Purpose & Facts | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified April 20, 2026. Accessed May 19, 2026. https://www.history.com/articles/lewis-and-clark.

“Lewis & Clark Expedition.” National Archives. Last modified June 2, 2021. Accessed May 19, 2026. https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/lewis-clark.

“Home | Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.” Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Accessed May 19, 2026. https://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/.

Documentaries & Videos

Biography. “Lewis & Clark: Explorers of the New Frontier | Full Documentary | Biography.” Video. YouTube, October 29, 2021. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DhPBfnDkO2w.

The History Guy: History Deserves to Be Remembered. “Seaman: Meriwether Lewis’ Dog.” Video. YouTube, November 6, 2024. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4QxOEXIikls.

River Museum. “Lewis & Clark: Great Journey West.” Video. YouTube, October 5, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vrRvPmKQ5uU.

Suggested Reading

[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]

Ambrose, Stephen E. Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis Thomas Jefferson and the Opening of the American West. Simon & Schuster, 2002.

Duncan, Dayton, and Ken Burns. Lewis & Clark: An Illustrated History. Knopf Publishing Group, 1997.

Fenster, Julie M. Jefferson’s America: The President, the Purchase, and the Explorers Who Transformed a Nation. Crown, 2017.

Gilman, Carolyn. Lewis and Clark: Across the Divide. Smithsonian, 2003.

Lewis, Meriwether, and William Clark. The Journals of Lewis and Clark. Penguin, 2002.

Tubbs, Stephenie Ambrose. Why Sacagawea Deserves the Day off & Other Lessons From the Lewis and Clark Trail. U of Nebraska Press, 2008.

History

Fascinating History: U.S. Transcontinental Railroad Completed (10 May 1869)

[This has been rewritten from 2025  and new sources have been added]

East and West Shaking hands at the laying of last rail Union Pacific Railroad
10 May 1869
Andrew J. Russell (1829–1902), Restored by Adam Cuerden
Yale University Libraries (via Wikimedia Commons)

 

The transcontinental railway that connected both coasts in May 1869 meant you could travel between both coasts increasing both cargo and people movement on a scale never seen before.

It is hard to think of a time without cars and airplanes to travel long distances, but for a long time you were limited to just foot, horse, and sail making long distance travel long and even dangerous. The development of the steam engine changed that forever. Trains that could haul people and cargo over distances became practical; steam engines replaced sails with steamships. Rail lines connecting cities appeared allowing for quicker movement of cargo in Europe and the United States. The dream of connecting both coasts was born to avoid sailing through Cape Horn or walking across the Isthmus of Panama and was fulfilled on May 10, 1865.

In 1853, the U.S. Congress approved money for surveys for possible railroad routes. Delays due to where it should begin and of course the looming tensions between North and South delayed it. In 1862–with the Civil War underway–the Pacific Railroad Act was passed which provided loans and public land grants to build the railroad. A second one in 1864 was passed to increase the land grant sizes and allowed the railroads to sell bonds to raise capital. The Union Pacific began westward construction from Omaha, Nebraska and the Central Pacific began constructing eastward from Sacramento, California. Construction was arduous, difficult due to extremes of heat and cold, and often lived in miserable conditions. Chinese laborers who worked for the Central Pacific worked long hours for less pay than their counterparts at Union Pacific.

Construction of rails and tunnels in the Sierra Nevada mountains was difficult, and avalanches would take whole work crews. Dynamite had not been invented yet, so for blasting rock black powder or nitroglycerin was used. Nitroglycerin was not widely known, having been made into a blasting agent by Alfred Nobel in the early 1860’s. Used in its liquid form before dynamite was invented (also by Nobel), was extremely dangerous to handle, sometimes exploding due to mishandling or temperature changes.

In April 1866 70 crates of nitroglycerin exploded aboard a steamship bound for California, killing fifty people. Not long after that a nitroglycerin explosion occurred in San Francisco at the Wells Fargo office killing fifteen people. Railroad workers in the Sierra Nevada were killed transporting nitroglycerin. This resulted in a California law banning liquid nitroglycerin from being transported in the state and Central Pacific using black powder from that point on.

Crates of Nitroglycerin exploded at the Wells Fargo office in San Francisco in 1866. After this explosion, Wells Fargo refused to handle any further shipments of the volatile liquid. The photo above was part of photographic evidence entered into a legal proceeding.
Image: Carleton Watkins (American, 1829 – 1916), photographer
The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, 98.XC.167.65

Despite the obstacles and even initially building lines that did not connect, the transcontinental railroad was finished, under budget, and ahead of schedule in 1869. By June 1869 it was entirely possible to travel by rail from Jersey City, New Jersey to the Alameda Wharf in Oakland, CA. There you would catch a railroad owned ferry to San Francisco. Why not go directly to San Francisco? You would have to head down to San Jose and then take a second train, the San Francisco & San Jose Railroad, which came into San Francisco adding additional hours to your trip. Freight cars were unloaded in Alameda, loaded onto special ferries to be transported across the bay to San Francisco. They then would be unloaded onto specially built railroad piers and hauled away by the local railroad that serviced the wharves.

Advertisements carried in The Salt Lake Daily Telegraph showing both Central Pacific and Union Pacific Railroads ability to know travel between both the East and West coasts of the United States. Appeared the week that the two rail lines were joined in Utah on 10 May 1869.
Source: The Cooper Collection of US Railroad History
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

The establishment of the transcontinental railroad made possible quick delivery of passengers, freight, and mail across the country. What used to take weeks or months of travel was now just a week at most. Timetables from that time showed a how long a journey would take:

New Jersey to Omaha: 2-3 days.
Omaha to Sacramento: 2-3 days.
Sacramento to Alameda: 1 day.

No longer the uncomfortable ride on a stagecoach or a long sea voyage. Now it was just at most a week between coasts resulting in a significant boost to the economy. New communities would form where the trains stopped. Immigrants from Europe would now easily move into the interior building homes resulting in new communities filling up the country. The transcontinental railroad united the country, spurred economic growth, and the settling of the country. The railroad remained an important component of travel until replaced by the auto and airplane.

Sources

“Building the Transcontinental Railroad.” Smithsonian Learning Lab. Accessed May 13, 2026. https://learninglab.si.edu/collections/building-the-transcontinental-railroad/n3uf1KkD3VuPYmdq.

Dwyer, Kassandre. “Get to Know the Architects & Builders of the Transcontinental Railroad | TheCollector.” TheCollector. Accessed May 13, 2026. https://www.thecollector.com/get-know-architects-builders-transcontinental-railroad/.

Graves, G. J. “Nitroglycerine!” Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum. Accessed May 13, 2026. https://cprr.org/Museum/Newspapers/Nitroglycerine.html. Newspaper accounts of nitroglycerine explosions.

“Transcontinental Railroad Completed | May 10, 1869  | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified May 28, 2025. Accessed May 13, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/may-10/transcontinental-railroad-completed.

“01. Black Powder & Nitroglycerin  – Linda Hall Library.” The Linda Hall Library. Last modified April 8, 2024. Accessed May 13, 2026. https://www.lindahall.org/experience/digital-exhibitions/the-transcontinental-railroad/01-black-powder-nitroglycerin/.

Shedd, Thomas Clark. “The Transcontinental Railroad.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified May 4, 2026. Accessed May 13, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/technology/railroad/The-transcontinental-railroad.

 

History

Tragic History: The Devastating Eruption of Mount Pelée on 8 May 1902

[Important note: This has been revised and written for 2026 and includes new sources.]

One of the most devastating volcanic eruptions in modern times occurred on 8 May 1902 on the Caribbean island of Martinique. 30,000 people died from the eruption making it the deadliest eruption in modern times.

Martinique
Image: Alexandrin (2012)
Via Wikimedia Commons

Mount Pelée had been active for several weeks prior to its eruption. In April, explosions began at its summit, followed by numerous quakes, ash showers, boiling mud, and thick sulfurous gas clouds affecting the region. This drove ground insects and snakes into Saint-Pierre, causing serious problems for residents and livestock. Fifty people, mostly children, died from snakebites. As volcanic activity persisted, ash contaminated water sources, killing livestock. Outdoor activities near the mountain were canceled, and by May, many were worried.

On 5 May, a crater collapsed sending scalding water and pyroclastic debris in a river which buried both the owner and workers at a sugar works. The lahar traveled at 62 mph (100 kph) until it hit the sea resulting in a small tsunami that flooded lower areas of Saint Pierre. Conditions were worse by May 7 with more ash clouds and ominously a reddish-orange glow could be seen.

 The local government had initially taken little notice despite the occurrences happening near the mountain. A scientific commission headed up by a local science teacher concluded it was no threat despite continued warnings of its activity. People near the mountain were either leaving or being evacuated. Some were also leaving Saint Pierre as well and that was a problem for Governor Louis Mouttet. Saint Pierre was not called the Paris of the Antilles for nothing. It was a major economic hub for the island and while not its capitol, it was the cultural one. With 16 rum distilleries, sugar works, and other production activity, the city generated enormous wealth from its exports. If people became frightened and decided to leave, the economic activity of the city would diminish causing problems for Martinique. So the governor put pressure on the local paper to print reassuring articles that everything would be okay.

Mount Pelée had last erupted in 1851 and despite the ominous roaring from it, was said not to be a threat since lava would not be able to get there owing to the topography of the land. Residents were assured that despite the ash and other issues it raised that they would be safe. Anyone who raised concerns challenging this view were criticized. Those who did choose to leave were lucky as those who remained would die but not from lava but something few knew or truly understood yet: superheated gas coupled with hot ash.

Around 8 am on May 8, 1902, Mount Pelée erupted sending a massive pyroclastic flow to Saint Pierre. Traveling at an estimated speed of 100 mph (160 km) and while cooled by the time it reached the city, was 752 F (400 C).  The superheated gas melted glass, warped metal, and nearly all the 2,000 buildings reduced to rubble or skeleton framework. Only a few walls facing the coastline were left intact; statues had been hurled into the air by the force of the flow. Barrels of rum exploded sending flaming liquid into the streets. Everyone in their homes, places of work or worship, were killed instantly from the superheated gas and ash that was with it. Out in the harbor, 20 ships were destroyed and set ablaze by the heat. One ship–SS Roddam­ from England–managed to escape and make it to St. Lucia to report what happened. However, the hot ash had fallen on the ship, and many passengers were terribly burned and some parts of the ship had fires burning that were put out.

A large black cloud composed of superheated gas, ash and rock rolled headlong down the south flank of Mt. Pelée at more than 100 miles per hour, its path directed by the V-shaped notch at the summit. In less than one minute it struck St. Pierre with hurricane force. The blast was powerful enough to carry a three-ton statue sixteen meters from its mount. One-meter-thick masonary walls were blown into rubble and support girders were mangled into twisted strands of metal. The searing heat of the cloud ignited huge bonfires. Thousands of barrels of rum stored in the city’s warehouses exploded, sending rivers of the flaming liquid through the streets and into the sea. The cloud continued to advance over the harbor where it destroyed at least twenty ships anchored offshore. The hurricane force of the blast capsized the steamship Grappler, and its scorching heat set ablaze the American sailing ship Roraima, killing most of her passengers and crew. The Roraima had the misfortune of arriving only a few hours before the eruption. Those on board could only watch in horror as the cloud descended on them after annihilating the city of St. Pierre. Of the 28,000 people in St. Pierre, there were only two known survivors.

(How Volcanoes Work: MT. PELÉE ERUPTION (1902),Geology Department,University of San Diego)

Remains of St. Pierre by Angelo Heilprin (United States, 1853-1907), 1902.
Public Domain

It was a scene of utter devastation: The French cruiser Suchet was the first on the scene around 12:30 and saw the still burning town. Other ships would soon arrive and were astonished at what they saw. The once prosperous city was gone and unrecognizable. Smoldering fires and flames burned for days keeping rescue parties at a distance. Additionally, the toxic gasses lingering from the pyroclastic flow made the entire area too dangerous to walk around in. There are fifty known survivors; two from Saint Pierre itself. One was a prisoner in the city’s jail. Louis-Auguste Cyparis was in a solitary cell that was thick walled that shielded him from the full force of the pyroclastic flow. He was left with burns on his arms and legs. Pardoned, he became the “Man Who Lived Through Doomsday” with the Barnum and Bailey Circus. A shoemaker survived as he was on a hilltop outside of the city core, so the heat wave only singed and burned him. A young girl was out rowing when it happened and headed to a cave and was not directly hurt from the superheated gas. She did suffer burns later from falling ash and burning debris.

This is not a photo of the eruption on 8 May 1902 but a subsequent one on 27 May 1902
Photo: Angelo Heilprin, American geologist (1853-1907)
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

An eruption on 20 May would cause more devastation killing rescuers, engineers, and those bringing aid to the island. The second eruption also sent a pyroclastic flow that decimated what remained of Saint Pierre. Another eruption August would be its final one and has not erupted since then. It would take weeks to recover all the bodies from under the ash and the death toll was staggering in the end: 28,000-30,000 had perished in the cataclysm. The Paris of the Antilles was gone and never to return. The destruction left Martinique without its primary export hub, which was switched to Fort-de-France, and it was unable to replace it fully due to logistical issues. The sugar cane and banana growers had their crops destroyed by ash and would take until 1906 before it started to come back. The rum distillers were all destroyed causing further economic damage to the island. Other manufacturing in the city had also been destroyed as well. Aid from France and other countries helped those displaced by the eruption and to help rebuild the island. Saint Pierre would never be wholly rebuilt; small villages would take over some of the area it once had. Today it is a small town that people visit to see the ruins and the museum.

Mount Pelée , Saint-Pierre, Martinique
22 May 2019
Image: Rehcral
Via Wikimedia Commons

 

A new science, Vulcanology, was born from this disaster that would scientifically study volcanoes. The Mount Pelée eruption also provided scientific documentation for a phenomenon called nuée ardente, a dangerous pyroclastic flow with an incandescent cloud containing hot gas, ash, bits of the volcano itself. This changed the understanding of volcanic hazards of certain volcanoes and how truly lethal they could be. Today Mount Pelée, like Vesuvius, is closely monitored. According to the Volcanic explosivity index established later, the eruption is measured at 4 making it Cataclysmic.

Sources

Mount Pelee Volcanic Eruption – May 8, 1902 – Devastating Disasters.” Accessed May 11, 2026. https://devastatingdisasters.com/natural/89416459/2016/03/mount-pelee-volcanic-eruption-may-8-1902/.

“Mount Pelée Begins to Erupt, Burying Caribbean City | May 8, 1902 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified May 27, 2025. Accessed May 11, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/May-8/volcanic-eruption-buries-caribbean-city.

“The Catastrophe.” Memorial De Catastrophe 1902. Accessed May 11, 2026. https://www.memorial1902.org/the-catastrophe/.

Evans, Frank. The Tragedy of Pelee. U.S.Naval Institute. Proceedings, September 1938. Accessed May 11, 2026. https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1938/september/tragedy-pelee.

“How Volcanoes Work – the Eruption of Mt. Pelee, Martinique.” Accessed May 11, 2026. https://volcanoes.sdsu.edu/Pelee.html.

“Discover Saint-Pierre.” La Martinique. Accessed May 11, 2026. https://www.martinique.org/en/towns/saint-pierre.

History, Maritime Disasters

Remembering History: Sinking of Lusitania (7 May 1915)

RMS Lusitania Coming Into Port (circa 1907-1913)
George Grantham Bain Collection, US Library of Congress, Digital Id cph.3g13287.
Public Domain

On 7 May 1915, the Cunard liner RMS Lusitania sailing from New York to Liverpool was torpedoed off Ireland and sank within 18 minutes. Of the 1,959 passengers and crew aboard, only 761 would survive. 128 of the passengers were American.

World War II had begun in 1914 between Britain, France, and Russia (including Belgium, Italy, Portugal, and Serbia) and Germany, Austria Hungary, and Turkey (then called Ottoman Empire). The United States, under President Woodrow Wilson, declared neutrality. Since the U.S. was a major trading partner with Britain, problems arose when Germany tried to quarantine the British Isles using mines.  Several American ships ended up being damaged or sunk as a result. In February 1915, Germany declared unrestricted submarine warfare around British waters. This meant any ship entering these waters were subject to being attacked and sunk by German forces.

To make this very clear, the German embassy in Washington had advertisements run in New York newspapers in early May 1915 that Americans traveling on British or Allied ships in war zones did so at their own risk. In one case, the announcement was on the same page as advertisement of the Lusitania sailing from New York to Liverpool.

Warning issued by Imperial German Embassy in Washington about travelling on RMS Lusitania.
Author Unknown
Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

The British Admiralty issued warnings, due to merchant ships being sunk off the south coast of Ireland, to ships to avoid the area or take evasive action (zigzagging was advised). The British objected by pointing out that threatening to torpedo all ships was wrong, whether announced in advance or not. During her construction, subsidized by the British government, it was done with the proviso she could be converted to an armed merchant cruiser.

A compartment was also installed to for the purposes of carrying arms and ammunition if it were needed. Gun mounts were installed for deck cannons, but they were not installed. At the time of her sinking, she was not operating in any official capacity as an armed merchant cruiser. The Germans suspected the ship was being used to transport munitions and her repainting to a grey color was an attempt to disguise her (it was, but to make it harder to spot from a periscope).

The Lusitania was one of the fastest liners on the Atlantic capable of 25 knots (29 mph) with many refinements. With lifts, the wireless telegraph, electric lights, and more passenger space (and more sumptuous accomodations), traveling on the Lusitania or her sister ships Aquitania and Maurentania was considered a good experience by seasoned travelers. The fact that she traveled so fast makes it likely it was simply being in the right place and the right time for the German U-boat. She could not possibly have caught the speedy vessel otherwise (there are arguments about what speed Lusitania was doing at this time off Ireland).

Engraving of Lusitania Sinking by Norman Wilkinson, The Illustrated London News, May 15, 1915
Public Domain(Wikimedia)

Captain William Turner did not use zigzagging while in the area (many argue that it does not really work). The commanding officer of the U-boat,  Walther Schwieger, ordered one torpedo fired around 14:10 (2:10 pm). It struck the Lusitania on the starboard bow. A second explosion within the ship occurred and the ship began to founder starboard quickly. While the crew tried to launch the lifeboats, the severe list made it difficult and impossible in many cases. Only six of the forty-eight lifeboats would be launched. The ship sank in 18 minutes taking with her 1, 198 souls. Of the 764 that did survive (and that is a heroic tale of itself), three would die later from wounds sustained from the sinking. Though close to the coast, it would be some time before assistance arrived. Local fishing ships were the first to provide assistance, and later the naval patrol boat Heron. Other small ships provided assistance as well.

Aftermath

The sinking provoked international fury at Germany. Germany defended its actions saying the ship had been carrying contraband and was an armed auxiliary military cruiser. The reaction within Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey was criticism of the sinking. The German government tried to defend the sinking, even though she was not armed, by saying she was carrying contraband and they had warned this would happen. The official statements did not go over well in the United States or in Britain. Editorials in newspapers denounced what Germany had done calling for more to bring them to heel. It was hotly debated within the Wilson administration what to do. Wilson condemned what Germany had done but internally but William Jennings Bryan, the Secretary of State, argued for trying to convince both Britain and Germany to ratchet down some of the actions that had led to Lusitania sinking. Bryan was antiwar and like many did not want the U.S. getting involved in the European war.

Dead Wake: The Last Crossing of the Lusitania by Erik Larson

President Wilson would send three notes to Germany that made his position clear on the issue. First he said that Americans had the right to travel on merchant ships and for Germany to abandon submarine warfare on such vessels. Second, he rejected German arguments about Lusitania. This note caused Bryan to resign and was replaced by Robert Lansing. The third note was a warning that any subsequent sinkings would be “deliberately unfriendly.” That last one made it clear America’s position on the matter. While many wanted to stay out of the war, if the Germans did do it again they likely would find themselves at war with them.

The British government and press were not happy with Wilson over these notes. He was widely castigated and sneered. The reality was that American public opinion was not in favor of war. Wilson knew this and hoped Germany would stop attacking merchant vessels. There was some attempt within the German government to forbid action against neutral ships, which did curtail unrestricted submarine warfare for a while. British merchant ships were targeted, neutral ships treated differently (boarded and searched for war materials), and passenger ships left alone. But in 1917, Germany announced it would resume unrestricted submarine warfare. Wilson was furious and began preparations for war with Germany.

Shop For Lusitania books on Amazon

Sources

“German Submarine Sinks Lusitania | May 7, 1915 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified February 18, 2025. Accessed May 7, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/May-7/german-submarine-sinks-lusitania.

“Lusitania: History, Sinking, Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified March 28, 2026. Accessed May 7, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lusitania-British-ship.

The Lusitania Resource. “The Lusitania Resource: Passengers & Crew, Facts & History.” The Lusitania Resource. Last modified May 3, 2025. https://www.rmslusitania.info/.

Library of Congress. 2015. “The Lusitania Disaster  | Articles & Essays  | Newspaper Pictorials: World War I Rotogravures, 1914-1919  | Digital Collections  | Library of Congress.” The Library of Congress. The Library of Congress. 2015. https://www.loc.gov/collections/world-war-i-rotogravures/articles-and-essays/the-lusitania-disaster/.

“Torpedoes and Tragedy: The Sinking of RMS Lusitania.” 2023. National WWI Museum and Memorial. 2023. https://www.theworldwar.org/learn/about-wwi/torpedoes-and-tragedy-sinking-rms-lusitania.

 

History

Remembering History: The Hindenburg Disaster (6 May 1937)

[Note this has been rewritten from 2025 for conciseness and additional source information]

On 6 May 1937, the German airship Hindenburg caught fire and was destroyed while docking at Naval Air Station Lakehurst, New Jersey. Of the 97 passengers and crew, 35 died, and one ground worker was killed.

Airship Hindenburg crash in Lakehurst, New Jersey on May 6, 1937
Photo originally taken by Murray Becker, AP
Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

The Silver Giant was the nickname of the German airship Hindenburg. At 804 feet long she was just 80 feet shorter than Titanic and was the largest aircraft ever built. She traveled at 80 miles an hour making a journey from Germany to the United States in 2 ½ days, faster than passenger liners of the day. It was a marvel of aviation to see these German airships move through the skies offering unparalleled views that modern day passenger jets rarely offer. Airships were essentially giant balloons, a technology that had been around since the 18th century and it was the German Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin that developed them. His first creations were only a modest success but World War I saw them used for aerial bombings. Now called Zeppelins, they would drop bombs on unsuspecting people below in London or Paris causing panic. The damage they did was minimal and the British had a hard time shooting them down requiring newer ammunition be developed.

German engineers after the war designed airships as long range passenger ships to cross the Atlantic. While a test flight in 1919 showed it could be done, it would take until 1928 when the age of airship travel began. The Graf Zeppelin, launched in 1928, carried passengers in style that rivaled that of passenger lines. Commercial service between Germany, the United States, and South America commenced. Launched in 1936, Hindenburg made roundtrips to the United States and Brazil. It ?had 25 two person cabins, a bar, restaurant, and smoking lounge. Meals were served three times a day on fine china, with a grand piano as well. It was luxuriously decorated evoking a style only the most upscale hotels or passenger liners would do. One way cost $400 and most considered the experience worth the cost. All the German airships were originally designed to use helium, but the United States banned its export to Germany, so they used hydrogen instead.

Hydrogen being flammable required additional safety measures to ensure it would not contact anything that might ignite it. The smoking lounge was pressurized to keep the gas out. Smoking was forbidden outside of that area. The engines–4 Daimler Benz 16-cylinder engines that gave it were far away from the gas as well. A crew of forty was aboard the airship that day when it arrived in the United States. Despite this, many considered it safe and a better flying experience than taking an airplane. Its only rival was the Pan Am Clipper, which offered service to Asia, and many said was just as good. The future looked bright for airships, but what happened on May 6, 1937, would change that forever.

Scheduled to dock at the Lakehurst Naval Air Station in New Jersey, it first flew over Manhattan to give passengers a spectacular view of the city. The landing was delayed though due to winds of up to 25 knots. Being lighter than air, this would make landings difficult. Heading south until a storm had passed, then turned back at 6 pm and was scheduled to dock at 7 pm. As they approached, they dropped some ballast water splashing onlookers at the landing area. Hindenburg passengers could be seen looking out the windows by people on the ground around 7:21 pm. All looked normal to flight officers and crew were ready on the ground for the mooring line to drop from the tail and rear landing wheel.

Witnesses say they saw a mushroom size flame rise from the top of the tail section, just in front of the tail fin around 7:25 pm.  Crew in the tail heard a detonation that reminded them of a burner on a gas stove. Fire spread rapidly engulfing the midsection in flames before the tail hit the ground. Soon the entire airship was being consumed in flames in just 34 seconds leaving both passengers and crew little time to react. Many jumped when the ship was still high, perishing when they hit the ground. Many were trapped by both furniture and dead passengers. Some managed to walk out when it hit the ground or were rescued from its burning remains. An infirmary was used for survivors, and the press room was converted into a temporary morgue. Only 13 of the 35 passengers survived.

Due to the large number of reporters present, photographs and filming of the arrival was done. Reporters quickly called in their stories and photographs of the burning Hindenburg were quickly developed and published. Live reporting was rare, so most recorded their broadcast for later as was done by WLS (Chicago) reporter Herbert Morrison. His reporting of seeing the Hindenburg being destroyed was played the next day and went down in journalist history and forever associated him with the event. His by the minute account related to everyone who listened to the horror he saw and his interviews with people who saw or survived it as well. One interesting fact though was it was recorded at a higher speed making his voice sound higher than it was. You can listen to the full broadcast by going here.

The extensive investigation that followed resulted in neither German nor American inquiries finding sabotage was the cause. The American report found:

The cause of the accident was the ignition of a mixture of free hydrogen and air. Based upon the evidence, a leak at or in the vicinity of cell 4 and 5 caused a combustible mixture of hydrogen and air to form in the upper stern part of the ship in considerable quantity; the first appearance of an open flame was on the top of the ship and a relatively short distance forward of the upper vertical fin. The theory that a brush discharge ignited such mixture appears most probable.

It was then a tragic accident. A hydrogen leak had occurred and was ignited causing the terrible disaster. In the aftermath of this tragedy, the Zeppelins would continue to fly but their popularity began to wane. The Pan Am Clipper, originally designed to cross the Atlantic but banned by the British wanting to develop their own, showed long range planes were a viable service. In the United States, airship development had met mostly with disaster and was shelved. World War II saw the end of airships, and they never returned to passenger service. After the war, airplanes became dominant replacing passenger liners and trains for medium to long distance travel. While the modern-day versions are just used now for tours and taking live video shots of major events. However, there are some who believe, due to rising fuel costs and other issues, that perhaps airships may yet be viable again.

Over the years countless theories have been put forward to explain what happened to the Hindenburg: lightning, static spark, engine failure, incendiary paint, hydrogen leak, or a fuel leak. Some have argued sabotage was indeed the cause, though proof has been difficult to determine with a high degree of certainty. The tv show MythBusters looked at the incendiary paint theory and determined it was not probable. Occam’s Razor is perhaps the best guide here. The simplest explanation–a hydrogen leak ignited by its contact with air-is probably the truth.

Sources

“The Hindenburg, Before and After Disaster.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed May 6, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/story/the-hindenburg-before-and-after-disaster.

“The Hindenburg Disaster | May 6, 1937 | HISTORY.” HISTORY. Last modified April 24, 2026. Accessed May 6, 2026. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/may-6/the-hindenburg-disaster.

“All About the Hindenburg — Adam Cap.” Adam Cap. Last modified January 22, 2019. Accessed May 6, 2026. https://adamcap.com/schoolwork/2698/.

“Oh The Humanity! Herbert Morrison and the Hindenburg.” Airships.Net. Last modified February 15, 2017. Accessed May 6, 2026. https://www.airships.net/hindenburg/disaster/oh-the-humanity-herbert-morrison-and-the-hindenburg/.

Disasters. “Seconds From Disaster the Hindenburg | Full Episode | National Geographic Documentary.” Video. YouTube, May 6, 2021. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KowvaxobrQg.

Videos & Documentaries

British Pathé. “Hindenburg Disaster – Real Footage (1937) | British Pathé.” Video. YouTube, March 24, 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fURATK5Yt30.

NOVA PBS Official. “Newly Analyzed Footage Helps Solve Hindenburg Mystery.” Video. YouTube, May 17, 2021. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UFCgipjR2ow.

The History Guy: History Deserves to Be Remembered. “Hindenburg Reconsidered.” Video. YouTube, May 6, 2026. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2KxbATAhBiU.

Tasting History with Max Miller, “The Hindenburg Disaster – Dining on the Zeppelin,” Video, YouTube, November 28, 2023, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s8BqxWbX_r8.

Disasters. “Seconds From Disaster the Hindenburg | Full Episode | National Geographic Documentary.” Video. YouTube, May 6, 2021. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KowvaxobrQg.