Saint Titus Brandsma was a Dutch Carmelite priest who was executed by the Nazis on 26 July 1942 at Dachau concentration camp in 1942.
Carmelite priest Titus Brandsma (1881-1942) Circa 1920’s (author unknown) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Born Anno Sjoerd Brandsma on 23 February 1881 to Titus and Tjitsje Postma in Oegeklooster, Friesland, Netherlands. His parents ran a dairy farm and were Catholic in an area that was predominantly Protestant (Calvinist). He grew up in a family of three sisters and one brother. Of the six children, five would join religious life. Only one daughter would not do so. At age 11, he attended a preparatory school for boys in Megen for those considering a priestly or religious vocation. The minor seminary was run by the Franciscans.
After graduation, he entered the Carmelite order in 1898 and took the name Titus (his father’s name) as his religious name. Unlike most Carmelites who focus on living a contemplative life of prayer, he felt called to do more. He was drawn to journalism and writing that would become his second vocation. He was ordained in 1905 and later received a doctorate in philosophy after studying in Rome. He would return home and help found the Catholic University of Nijmegen in 1923. He would teach and later become its head. As the 1930’s drew closer, he became increasingly concerned with the rise of Nazism and antisemitism in Germany. He penned articles calling it a black lie and repeated his criticisms in public lectures.
His superiors in Rome decided in 1935 to conduct a lecture tour of Carmelite foundations in the United States. To better learn how to speak English, he stayed with Carmelite communities in Dublin and in Kinsale (a seaside town). While in Ireland, he met Éamon de Valera, the President of the Executive Council (later called Taoiseach). Accounts of his stay indicate that was known for drinking considerable amounts of whiskey without ill-effect! Just before he crossed the Atlantic to the U.S., he received word he had been appointed spiritual advisor to 30 Catholic newspapers in the Netherlands. His travels in the United States took him through the East and Midwest. His journals reveal a man deeply impressed by the many things he saw. And saw the work of God in Niagara Falls.
Germany invaded the neutral Netherlands on 10 May 1940. There was no declaration of war, just the day opening with the sound of roaring aircraft. The Dutch put up a lot of resistance to the attack but in the end could not sustain it. Germans had bombed Rotterdam and not wanting to suffer the fate of Warsaw (which had been bombed into submission), the Dutch surrendered (apart from Zealand which fought until 18 May) on 14 May 1940. With Germans now in control, they began implementing German laws. Catholic schools were told to expel Jewish students, barred priests and religious orders as school principals, limited charitable contributions, and censored the Catholic press. Brandsma plead the Germans not to impose these rules on behalf of the Dutch bishops; they declined.
Arthur Seyss-Inquart, the Reich commissioner of the German-occupied Netherlands, was unhappy with the Dutch bishops opposing him. He ordered all newspapers, including Catholic ones, to accept advertisements and press releases from the Nazi regime. The Dutch Bishops opposed this action. Brandsma was tasked with assisting in contacting Catholic newspaper editors to oppose the order. He was told by Archbishop de Jong that doing this was dangerous and he was not obliged to accept it.
“Father Titus knew exactly what I said, and he freely and willingly accepted the duty,” de Jong recalled.” (de Jong recounting his conversation to Father Titus to Father Boniface Hanley, O.F.M whose book “No Strangers to Violence, No Strangers to Love” relates accounts of Father Titus)
Father Titus traveled the Netherlands delivering letters from the bishops asking the newspaper editors to not comply with the German edict. He was able to visit 14 editors before the Gestapo arrested him at the Boxmeer monastery on 19 January 1942. Kneeling before his superior to receive the blessing before being taken away, he commented on the fact they were taking a 60-year-old man to jail. During his interrogation, was asked repeatedly why he broke German orders. He made it clear that as a Catholic, he could not have done anything differently. He was asked to write out his reasons for his refusal. And he did. He made clear that the Dutch people would give their lives, if necessary, for their religion. He further said: “The Nazi movement is regarded by the Dutch people not only as an insult to God in relation to his creatures, but a violation of the glorious traditions of the Dutch nation.” He concluded by asking for God’s blessing for both the Netherlands and Germany.
At the Amersfoort transit camp, he and others did forced manual labor clearing trees and other things. Despite meager rations, he shared his food with the hungry and especially with Jewish prisoners. He continued his priestly duties by offering clandestine prayers, hearing confessions, attending to the sick and dying, and even managed Stations of the Cross. The Gestapo was not done with him yet and continued interrogating him hoping the forced labor and meager food might have softened him up. It didn’t. He was sent to Dachau and arrived there on 19 June 1942. He arrived, according to accounts, in a calm and gentle state. He continued being cheerful and the Germans continued their beatings in Dachau.
Other religious and Carmelite brothers were in the camp as well. Father Titus was able to conceal a Holy Eucharist on his body. Though they tried to comfort him, Titus said that he had Jesus with him in the Eucharist. He retained, according to one recollection of him, a cheerful courage. He advised others to be patient and avoid hatred. “We are here in a dark tunnel, but we have to go on. At the end, the eternal light is shining for us,” he told them. He suffered painful sores on his feet but his fellow prisoners carried him back at the end of the day.
Dachau was known for its sadistic medical experiments so most prisoners avoided going to the infirmary. Father Titus though, due his declining health, was forced to go. He would receive a lethal injection on 26 July 1942 from a nurse. This same nurse, who Father Titus gave her his rosary, recalled his look of compassion for her. She did not want the rosary or pray, but Father Titus asked her to say the second part of the Hail Mary which says “pray for us sinners.” He told her if she prayed, she would not be lost. That same nurse would later become Catholic.
In the years since his death, he would become honored as a martyr. In Nijmegen he is considered one of its greatest citizens and in 2005 erected a memorial church in his name. Outside of Dachau, a street now bears his name. Nor were his scholarly pursuits forgotten. In 1968 the Titus Brandsma Institute in Nijmegen was created to further studies on spirituality. His strong words criticizing the Nazi regime and its antisemitism have not been forgotten either. In a time when many might not say much to defend Jews, he was out there making it very clear that what the Nazi’s were promoting was wrong. He was beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1985. After investigation and confirmation of a miracle, he was canonized by Pope Francis in 2022. At his canonization mass, Pope Francis noted:
“Holiness does not consist of a few heroic gestures, but of many small acts of daily love.”
On 25 Jul 1943 the Fascist Grand Council formally voted Mussolini from power and was arrested later after meeting with King Victor Emmanuel III. Support for Mussolini had dropped dramatically because of Italy’s participation in World War II and most Italians were happy he was gone. How did Italy get to this point? Let’s take a look.
Benito Mussolini from the second edition of Adolf Dresler’s “Mussolini als Journalist” (1939) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Italy Aligns with Germany
On 22 May 1939 Italy signed a treaty with Germany that allied both countries militarily and politically. Mussolini nicknamed this treaty, formally known as the Pact of Friendship and Alliance, as the Pact of Steel. The treaty committed Italy to support Germany if attacked or if it declared war. Mussolini believed the pact would provide defense from other Western nations and provide support for his ambitions in the Balkans and elsewhere. Italy was in desperate need of resources due to international sanctions in using mustard gas to conquer Ethiopia. It also lacked the industrial capability at that time for a sustained military conflict. Germany and Italy shared similar interests in believing Fascism was on the march. Italy, like Germany, sided with Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). A treaty of mutual interest in 1936 brought them closer together and paved the way for the Pact of Steel. It was also Mussolini who coined the term Axis regarding the countries that signed the treaty.
Mussolini had hoped both the British and French would give him concessions after the Munich Agreement of 1938, where both powers forced Czechoslovakia to hand over territory to Germany. There was none and Mussolini gave speeches laying out Italy’s desire to take territory in North Africa, France, a part of Switzerland, and Albania. He also threatened British control of the seas and of taking Gibraltar. In both London and Paris, such talk was seen as signaling his territorial ambitions. In 1938, Italy invaded and conquered Albania convincing the other powers of his territorial ambitions. The Pact of Steel in 1939 cemented the partnership between the two countries that had been going on informally. Not all Fascists in Italy agreed with aligning with Germany. Foreign Minister Count Galeazzo Ciano, married to Mussolini’s daughter Edda, became skeptical later as Germany failed to disclose the plan to invade Poland as required by the treaty. While Ciano and other Fascists believed war with Britain and France was inevitable as both powers were blocking their ambitions, they did not see it occurring for a few more years. They dreadfully miscalculated Hitler’s aims and ambitions.
World War II
Mussolini knew that Italy was not ready for war until 1942 (and the Pact of Steel said neither side was to enter war till 1943). Lacking the raw resources and industrial capability, they needed to import both coal and steel. Countries like Britain banned those raw materials, making it difficult to acquire. Knowing this, Britain and France did try to lure Mussolini away from Germany by offering those resources. And it may have worked as Mussolini was preparing to sign documents to that effect. German pressure on Mussolini though scuttled it. They sent coal by train over the Alps to him to strengthen their friendship. The Italian Army was large on paper but lacked modern transport and weapons leaving them unable to hold their own against a fully trained and battle-ready army. Since supplies were critical to Italy, it failed to prepare its merchant fleet for war and lost many ships that were enemy ports when war was declared. Mussolini was warned by his military advisors to wait until war production would be able arm his military for war. While Italy easily took Albania, the British routed them in North Africa, and the Greeks were able to stop an Italian invasion of their country. In both cases, Germany sent troops to accomplish what the Italians failed to do. They were successful in Yugoslavia since German troops were with them. And they only declared war on France when Germany had defeated them so they could take territory in the south including Corsica. Thanks to Italian occupation in France though, Jews were safe as Italy refused German demands to turn them over.
Rationing of food and other supplies took its toll on the population. Due to a reduced merchant fleet, supplies became more difficult to acquire and had to rely on Germany for a lot of it. Inflation set in as well making it hard for many to buy the supplies. The poor military situation only made it worse and support for Mussolini began to slip. The army was lightly armored, the air force and navy were at odds with each other, poor leadership in the upper levels that were coupled with ill-defined goals. Additionally, Mussolini might decide to do things on a whim making it a chaotic situation. With the Allies taking Sicily, landing in the south, and dropping bombs on Rome, most people had enough of the war. Both King Victor Emmanuel III and members of the Fascist Grand Council wanted Italy out of the war. Mussolini had to go.
Mussolini Sacked
The Fascist Grand Council met on 24 July 1943-a meeting that would last till the next morning-to discuss what to do. Mussolini, according to various accounts, looked sick, tired, and felt the burden of the military defeats suffered by the Italian military. For some, it appeared he wanted a way out and he got it. The Grand Council voted to remove him from power and transfer some of his powers to the king. There was opposition, but the majority voted for his removal. His son-in-law, Count Galeazzo Ciano, voted for his removal as well. Mussolini seemed stunned and dazed by it. His supporters tried to rally him, but he seemed deflated. He left for his meeting with King Emmanuel and arrived unshaven and groggy. He was informed by the king that he was under arrest and that General Pietro Badoglio would be taking over as Prime Minister. The war was seen as lost, King Emmanuel reportedly said. Mussolini did not resist and seemed to accept it. He was told his family would remain safe. He was whisked away and imprisoned.
The announcement of Mussolini’s downfall was greeted with a general sense of relief. It was hoped this would mean the end of the war. The Fascists did not stage any protests or marches over his removal and imprisonment. He was being held at La Maddalena and later removed to a safer location to prevent his being rescued. The new Italian government negotiated behind the scenes seeking an armistice that would lead to a peace treaty. For a moment Italians breathed a sigh of relief hoping the war would soon be over.
Aftermath
Hitler was furious at his removal and knew the Italians would sign an armistice. Several German battalions were sent into Italy despite objections from the new government. When the armistice was announced on 3 September 1943, Operation Asche was implemented. German troops seized control of northern Italy and marched on Rome. They also seized all its territory in the Balkans and France. Italian forces were told to disarm or be fired upon. Some resistance was done in Rome as the royal family fled with the government. Corsica, Calabria, and Sardinia were successfully defended by Italian troops and repelled German troops until the Americans arrived. The Germans quickly implemented their anti-Jewish policies. Hitler ordered Mussolini found and was rescued from imprisonment at Hotel Campo Imperatore atop Gran Sasso d’Italia mountain range on 12 September 1943. Italians in the north would have to wait until June 1944 to be liberated. Mussolini later would be forced to flee with his mistress but would be captured by partisans, executed, and his body hung upside down for the world to see.
“Italian Campaign.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified July 2, 2026. Accessed July 27, 2026. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Italian-Campaign.
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The Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD was the most destructive fire for the ancient city of Rome.
The Fire of Rome, 18 July 64 AD by Hubert Robert (1733–1808) 1785 Public Domain (US) via Wikimedia Commons
Rome was a metropolis in 64 AD where approximately one million people lived. Originally starting near the Tiber River, the city had grown and expanded to encompass much of what is called Rome today. Because much of the city was built near the river, it was prone to flooding. This happened frequently resulting in major floods where many parts of Rome were underwater.
Aside from that occasional blight, fires were not uncommon either. Since most people lived in poorly constructed wooden apartments, fires were common. Often small areas or neighborhoods might go up but there was no equivalent of a modern fire department. Instead, a small group established by the Emperor Augustus carried buckets to help put out fires. However, once a fire got too large there was nothing that could be done.
Since Rome had very narrow streets and houses close together, fires could become serious quickly. This also meant crowded streets and Romans generally walked on the raised sidewalks as the streets themselves were quite filthy from horse and human waste. Since few had a sewer opening in their home, they had to hand carry the waste containers to the nearest sewer opening. Most people just dumped it into the street, adding an additional hazard to walking as the contents of the pot or even the pot itself might hit people passing below. Romans cleverly built raised stones to allow crossing streets to avoid stepping onto the street itself. Those who traveled in raised litters had perfumed liners to mitigate the stench, which was very strong during the warm summers.
On the evening of 18 Jul 64, a fire broke out in the slums south of Palatine Hill. It was likely started by a tipped over oil lantern. The burning olive oil would start a small fire that if left unintended probably grew fast due the wood providing fuels. With winds and the closeness of homes, the fire grew larger before realizing how serious it was. The fire began spreading quickly consuming neighborhoods and whole districts. Rome was divided into 14 districts and soon every one of them would be impacted by the fires. Only three were spared the direct results of the fire (mostly those on the hills) but they were impacted as people were fleeing the fires in massive numbers. Hundreds died in the fires and thousands were left homeless. And the fire raged for nine days before it went out leaving the city in ruins.
Depiction of the Great Fire of Rome (64 AD) Image: Omar Sahel via publicdomainpictures.net
The emperor Nero was away at the time the fire started and headed back to Rome. Contrary to both legends and myths, there is nothing to indicate he started the fire. Nor was he merrily playing his lyre while composing an ode to the fire. The famous idiom “Fiddling while Rome burns” was not accurate for Nero as the fiddle didn’t exist. Nero had started out his reign liked but by this time things had changed. He had murdered his mother, was known for his vanity, and spent a lot of time away from Rome doing things emperors didn’t do (acting, singing, participating in sports). Many had come to dislike him in the military, nobility and even the commoners.
Nero took steps to help those who lost their homes allowing the homeless to camp out in areas that normally were not allowed. And then he undertook the redesigning of Rome by widening streets to allow more people and carts to get through and put rules in place to prohibit the use of materials that caused fires. His megalomania would surface though when he wanted to rename Rome (Neropolis) and build a new palace. He had a bigger problem though as people were angry and resentful about what happened. And emperors, being the ones in charge, could be blamed when things went awful. So, to distract them, he craftily spread the tale that Christians were responsible for setting the fires. And Christians were a small minority whose faith in an unseen god was disturbing to many. Also spread was the tale that Christians, to bring about the end of the world so that their god might return, burned the city to make it possible.
And it worked. Nero worked up the populace to believe that this minority sect was responsible for Rome’s recent destruction. There was no proof this was the case, but the anger against them worked. Christians were arrested and put to death in horrific ways, often in public spectacles where hungry lions or other animals were let loose to have at them. And Nero basked in the glory of being the one who was rebuilding Rome and dealing with those who had caused the fires.
Aftermath
Rebuilding saw Roman houses spaced out and built with brick. However, the immense cost of rebuilding drained the Roman treasury. This would lead to increased taxation, and heavy tributes were placed on the provinces. Thinking it would help with costs, Nero devalued the currency, leading to inflation. The increased taxes and the devaluing of the currency led to an unsuccessful uprising in 65 AD with all the conspirators either killed or forced into suicide. In March 68, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis revolted against Nero’s tax policies. Gaius Julius Vindex called for support from Servius Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis. Vindex’s revolt was put down and its commander, Lucius Verginius Rufus, was hailed by legions as the next emperor (he did not accept it). All of this led to instability for Nero as Galba started getting support. A key defection by the commander of the Praetorian Guard sealed his fate. Nero thought about going to Galba and asking for forgiveness but abandoned that idea.
The Praetorian Guard had abandoned the palace by this point and so he went out to the country to collect his thoughts. The senate declared him a public enemy and Nero prepared to die and had a grave dug for him. He was unable to take his own life and asked his secretary Epaphroditus to do it for him. He died on 9 June 68 AD which was greeted by cheering in Rome. It would be the end of the Judeo-Claudian line (Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero) and would usher in the Year of the Four Emperors. There would be Nero impostors as well claiming power. Vespasian was the last of the Four Emperors and would rule for 10 years and die in 79 AD. His rule restored political stability and established the Flavian dynasty that lasted for 27 years.
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Cassius Dio. Roman History: Volume VIII: Books 61–70. Translated by Herbert B. Foster and Earnest Cary. Loeb Classical Library: Dio Cassius. Harvard University Press, 1925.
Nicholas II of Russia with the family (left to right): Olga, Maria, Nicholas II, Alexandra Fyodorovna, Anastasia, Alexei, and Tatiana. Livadiya, Crimea, 1913. Portrait by the Levitsky Studio, Livadiya. Today the original photograph is held at the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia. Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
On 16 July 1918 the Russian Imperial family (Czar Nicholas II, his wife Alexandra, their son Alexi and their four daughters Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia) along with members of their entourage were shot and bayoneted to death in Yekaterinburg, Russia. The order to kill them came from the Ural Regional Soviet. Their bodies would be stripped, mutilated to prevent identification, and buried. This ended the 300-year-old Romanov dynasty and left mysteries to be answered about who was really buried and whether at least one Romanov had managed to escape.
Russia towards the end of the 19th century was inching towards modernity. It was primarily an agrarian country and was seen as backward to Europe that had embraced the industrial age. Britain, France, and Germany had been transformed, becoming very powerful in the process. The United States as well was not far behind either. Russia’s industrial age was beginning but they still had to rely on foreign sources to supply their military with needed arms and ships. As many in the middle class (and upper class as well) got access to more education (by attending schools in other countries or in Russia), they began to seek change to move Russia towards a constitutional system instead of an absolute monarchy that ruled Russia. And since more people were moving to the cities to work in factories, trying to solve the social problems that were emerging as well.
Czar Alexander II had begun a movement towards liberal reforms. He freed the serfs in 1861, reformed the judicial systems, having local judges elected, eliminated corporal punishment and promoted more self-government. He also eliminated some privileges for the nobility, promoted universal education, and promoted university education. However, after an attempted assassination in 1866, he pulled back and appointed more conservative ministers. In foreign policy he was mostly a pacifist but supported the United States and not the Confederacy during the American Civil War (he even sent warships to New York and San Francisco to discourage any taking of those cities). He sold Alaska to the U.S. since it was remote and didn’t want it to become a British colony. After the Franco-Prussian War of 1871 (which saw Louis Napoleon fall), he joined with Germany and Austria to help bring stability to Europe. However, he did fight against the Ottoman Empire (which freed Bulgaria, Montenegro, Romania and Serbia) and expanded Russia eastward. He faced a major challenge in Poland where in 1863 there was an uprising. It was put down but stripped Poland of its constitution and incorporated it directly into Russia.
He would be assassinated on 13 March 1881 ending liberal reform in Russia. His son, Alexander III, would take over and institute a more authoritarian government from that time on. He set out to undo his father’s liberal policies. The local governments were altered and peasant communes came under the control of landowners appointed by him, which took away power from both the peasants and nobility. He also instituted “Russification” where in all its territories only Russia would be taught and Eastern Orthodox the only religion. This resulted in the closure of German, Polish, and Swedish cultural and religious institutions. Antisemitism also was promoted by Alexander III and the May Laws of 1882 reflected this. These laws strictly limited where Jews might live, restricted occupations, forbade them from buying property, and conducting business on Sundays. The practical effect on this was to encourage open antisemitism resulting in pogroms all over western Russia. Jews then had no choice by migrating to Western Europe or the United States.
He became a target for assassination as well, but the plot was discovered by the Okhrana. Five of the conspirators were captured and hung in May 1887. One of those executed was Aleksandr Ulyanov, the older brother of Vladimir Ulyanov who later became known as Lenin. The death of his older brother was one of the chief reasons he sought to bring down the Romanov dynasty later.
Alexander’s son Nicholas (full name Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov) on 6 May 1868. He was the eldest son, so he was destined to become emperor one day. Yet Alexander was not sure he was ready for that role and thus didn’t bring him into the government. Nicholas agreed and was free to travel and see the world as a young man. Alexander III thought he had enough time to see his son ready to assume the role of emperor. Unfortunately, that would not be the case. In 1894 his health would deteriorate and would die on 1 November 1894. He had been counselled previously to bring Nicholas into the government, perhaps even heading up an agency, but Alexander thought his son was soft and unready. And when he died, Nicholas officially became Nicholas II the new emperor of Russia. He would quickly marry Alexandra (already his fiancée) and soon have children. But he was totally unprepared for the role he had ascended to.
Nicholas II kept most of the policies of his father in place. He also put the gold standard back in place, funded the All-Russia exhibition of 1896 and in 1902 saw the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway. Believing himself to put in power by the will of God, he saw himself in a manner few truly understood. He assumed people knew and accepted this. He believed that trying to impose constitutional principles limiting his power was wrong. And this led to growing resentment and conflicts in a Russia that was changing and wanted more political freedom. His ties to the Russian Orthodox Church caused concern and he put pressure on them to accede to his will at times (notably the canonization of Seraphim of Sarov). It caused fissures between him and the church, and with the people as well. Worst was yet to come.
The Russia-Japanese War of 1904-1905 would show the weakness of Russia. Russia had expanded in the Far East and sought control of both Manchuria and Korea. Nicholas strongly opposed Japanese control there and made it clear it would mean war if Japan tried to take Korea. The Japanese attacked Port Arthur in February 1904 where the Russian Pacific Fleet was located. They attacked without a formal declaration of war. Due to long supply lines, it proved difficult to supply Port Arthur which held out for nine months before surrendering. Meanwhile Russia dispatched a fleet from the Baltic to take on the Japanese Navy. However, after the nine-month voyage, they were defeated at the Battle of Tsushima in 1905. Calls for seeking peace were being made both inside Russia and from outside.
Many could see that the war was lost, and that Tsar Nicholas had to sue for peace or face a terrible defeat. Nicholas believed they could win but after the defeat of his navy, he accepted American mediation. This ultimately resulted in the Treaty of Portsmouth which ended the war. It had lasting repercussions for him. Nicholas firmly believed Russia could win the war against the Japanese, who he thought were inferior. Nor did his close advisors tell him the true strength of the Japanese. Despite disaster after disaster in the war, he seemed unfazed and believed in Russian superiority. Forced finally to admit defeat with the treaty, he ordered his treaty negotiator Count Witte to not agree to any indemnity payments or territory loss. He also wanted it known that he would resume war if the Japanese conditions were unacceptable. Ultimately Witte would cede southern Sakhalin to Japan, disobeying his emperor, to have the agreement signed.
The war resulted in the Russian Revolution of 1905 which ended only when Nicholas was forced by the dire circumstances of his country to create a representative assembly-Duma-and promise of constitutional reforms. However, he would retract these concessions, repeatedly dissolve the Duma, and this resulted in more unrest determined to unseat him. Various revolutionary groups like the Bolsheviks found easy recruits as Nicholas seemed bound and determined to keep in charge. In 1914, he would lead his country until another disastrous war-World War I. He decided to support Serbia when Austria threatened to invade in retaliation for a Serbian nationalist assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. He was also allied at that point with both Britain and France. His country though was scarcely prepared for war. Germany proved to have better troops, material, and supplies. As the defeats mounted, soldiers became weary, and wartime rationing had created a terrible morale situation, the dam was ready to burst.
In March 1917 revolution broke out in Petrograd (renamed from St. Petersburg) and Nicholas II was forced to abdicate the throne. A provisional government took over but stayed in the war. In November the Bolsheviks seized power, negotiated a peace deal with Germany and Austria, and became the first Communist state in history. Civil war broke out in June 1918 and at one point the anti-Bolshevik forces were near Yekaterinburg. The local authorities were told to prevent them from being rescued and why they decided to execute them. According to accounts, the family was ordered to get dressed to go down to a cellar in the house. There they sat in a way to suggest a photograph was to be taken to show they were still there. Then quite suddenly men armed with guns burst in and killed everyone in the room. After that they were stripped, mutilated, and buried.
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Stranger than Fiction: The Curious Cases of Romanov Survivors
Over the years there have been people to claim they were Anastasia, Alexei and other members of the presumed dead Romanov family. The most well-known of them was Anna Anderson who claimed to be Anastasia Romanov. In 1920, she was institutionalized in a Berlin hospital after a suicide attempt. She refused to reveal her identity and went by the name Fräulein Unbekannt (German for Miss Unknown). She then changed it to Tschaikovsky and after that Anderson. In 1922 she claimed to be a Russian grand duchess and got some public notice. Now while the immediate family had been killed by the Communists, there were a lot of Romanovs still alive, and some had known Anastasia as a young girl like her tutor Pierre Gilliard. Gilliard and others considered her an imposter, but some were convinced she might be Anastasia. In 1927 Tsarina’s brother, Ernest Louis (Grand Duke of Hesse), conducted a private investigation and learned she was Franziska Schanzkowska. She had been a Polish factory worker with a history of mental illness. German courts, after lengthy lawsuits brought over her claim, determined she could not prove she was Anastasia. This ended any legal claim, but it lingered in public for a long time.
If you ever watched the movie Miracle on 34th Street (1947) there is a reference to another Romanov imposter. It comes in the scene where they are discussing whether Kris is fit or not for the job. The doctor who knows Kris says he is of no harm despite his insistence he is Kris Kringle. He compares him to a well-known restaurant owner-a name he cannot remember-who believes he is a member of the Russian royal family-operates a restaurant and is quite normal. He was referring to Michael Romanoff, who claimed to be a nephew of the Tsar. He was Harry F. Gerguson and born in Lithuania. He claimed to be various people during his life but his claim to be Tsar’s nephew certainly got him attention. It was disproved but he opened Romanoff’s, a restaurant in Hollywood that was popular and ran from 1941-1962. He died from a heart attack in 1971.
When remains were found in a forest outside Yekaterinburg, they were subjected to DNA testing to determine who they were. They positively identified the remains as belonging to Tsar Nicholas II and his wife Alexandra, three of their daughters, the ladies’ maids to the Tsarina, the family doctor, cook, and footman. Missing were the son Alexei (age 13) and Anastasia. The two missing bodies would continue to fuel speculation of their survival until 2007. It was announced in August 2007 two burned and partial skeletons were found at a bonfire site near Yekaterinburg. The bones were from a boy aged 10-13 and a female between 18-23 years old. Also found were metal strips from a wooden box, nails, bullets, and shards from a container that held sulfuric acid.
Preliminary testing was done in 2008 and showed that the remains were of Alexei and one of his sisters. At the end of April 2008, Russian forensic scientists confirmed that DNA testing confirmed that the remains belonged to Alexei and one of his sisters. This ended any doubt as to whether any Romanovs survived. Anna Anderson, who died 1984 and was cremated, was determined not to be related to the Romanovs through Mitochondrial DNA using hair strands and hospital samples. The Russian Orthodox Church was very cautious about accepting the DNA results. So in 2015 the remains of Tsar Nicholas and Tsarina Alexandra were exhumed and once again tested. It confirmed they were in fact the bones of the couple. Most Russians today believe the murders were wrong and not justified at all. Not surprisingly the Communists believe otherwise.
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“The Last Days of Tsar Nicholas?: Pavel Mikhailovich Bykov?: Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming?: Internet Archive.” Internet Archive. Last modified July 18, 2018. https://archive.org/details/LastDaysTsar.
The storming of the Bastille, a formidable stone prison on 14 July 1789, is considered the start of the French Revolution.
The Storming of the Bastille by Jean-Pierre Houël (1735–1813) National Library of France Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
The Bastille, originally built to protect the eastern entrance to Paris, had become a symbol of tyranny for the political prisoners it often housed there. At this time in 1789, there were only seven prisoners and none of them were political prisoners. Four had been charged with forgery while two were considered mad or lunatics. The building itself was going to be demolished to create a public square.
France at this time was facing both economic and social problems inherited from previous monarchs. King Louis XVI, despite inheriting considerable debt from his predecessor, continued to spend lavishly making the debt grow even larger. Crop failures, particularly one in 1788, created unrest as the cost of bread soared. Additionally, many were unemployed adding fuel to the unrest. Some blamed it on the lowering of customs duties with England which had created more jobs there but lost them in France. With unrest brewing and riots breaking, King Louis XVI summoned the Estates-General, a national assembly of clergy, nobility, and the commoners to resolve the situation.
In theory, all three were equal but two parts could outvote the third leaving many deputies upset demanding a larger voice. This led to the creation of the National Assembly with the famous Tennis Court Oath of 20 June 1789 that it would not separate until a constitution was created. The National Assembly drew many nobles and clergy to it and King XVI gave his consent to it. However, the assembly of army regiments in Paris led to fears he was going to break it by force. His dismissal of Jacques Necker, a non-noble minister, on 11 July led to massive protests resulting in custom posts being destroyed. Since these posts imposed taxes on goods, they were despised.
A mob seized muskets on 14 July from a military hospital and marched on the Bastille. Seeing them approach, the governor invited the leaders in to discuss surrender terms. The crowd though was restless and began to believe the delegates had been arrested. Climbing the outer wall a group managed to bring down the drawbridge in the courtyard. The governor, breaking a pledge not to fire, ordered his guards to open fire killing 100 outright and wounding others. The arrival of French Guards though changed the situation. They sided with the mob, fired cannons at the Bastille, and forced the governor to surrender. Some of the royalist troops inside the Bastille would be killed and the governor was beheaded by the mob.
Aftermath
The French Revolution began in earnest from this point on. What began to reform France into a constitutional monarchy like Britain or a republic modeled on the United States, became instead a revolutionary government that completely changed France (the ancien regime). And the new order went viciously against royalists and supporters of the old order. King Louis XIV and his wife Marie Antoinette were beheaded. Ironically, he was the last prisoner of the Bastille before it was demolished. Revolutionary France soon found itself embroiled in its own civil war as various factions within it fought for control begetting more violence and bloody executions using the guillotine. That device would become the symbol of the revolution. Many churches too had become part of this revolution fully supporting its aims and failure to attend brought consequences causing many to flee.
It would come to an end as people, tired of the turmoil, wanted order which allowed a man named Napoleon Bonaparte, largely unknown to most French, to take over. Soon everyone would know about him and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars showed the revolutionary zeal now had changed into creating a new French empire in Europe and elsewhere.
SLICE History. “The French Revolution: Understanding the Fall of the Bastille | SLICE HISTORY | FULL DOCUMENTARY.” Video. YouTube, November 21, 2024. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UKXXq_Y5Yug.
Suggested Reading
[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]
Heinrich Himmler on 7 July 1942 ordered experimentation on women at Auschwitz concentration camp, which would later be extended to males. The purpose of the experiments was to find ways to sterilize Jews.
Heinrich Himmler, 1942 German Federal Archives (via Wikimedia Commons)
Extermination of Jews was something Himmler and many, including Hitler, fully supported. As head of the Schutzstaffel(SS) as well as the assistant chief of the Gestapo, he controlled all the secret police and paramilitary forces in Germany. This power gave Himmler the power to carry out Hitler’s Final Solution and the reason why he called for a conference about conducting such experiments. Attending the conference were SS General Richard Glueks (hospital chief), SS Major-General Karl Gebhardt, and Professor Karl Clauberg (a leading German gynecologist) and members of the Concentration Camp Protectorate.
It was decided that the experiments on sterilization would be done in a way women would not know what was being done to them. The experiments would reveal the best methods of sterilizing Jewish women and how to sterilize men as well using X-rays. Hitler approved but it was kept top secret. A prior plan to euthanize disabled people, those suffering from incurable diseases, or confined due to mental disorders had resulted in a public outcry they did not want repeated. One of the main reasons for sterilization was to use it in places where concentration camps could not be built. It was expanded to others they deemed inferior (Slavs, Roma, homosexuals etc.) Using medical treatments to hide their true objective of killing Jews would be revealed after the war.
Gate to Auschwitz I with its Arbeit macht frei sign (“work sets you free”), 2010 Image credit: xiquinhosilva Flickr via Wikimedia Commons
World History. “Nazi Angel of Death & His Horrific Medical Experiments on Auschwitz Prisoners – Josef Mengele.” Video. YouTube, April 25, 2023. Accessed July 8, 2026. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yWw5LMwM8x8.
World History. “Inhuman Nazi Medical Experiments & Nazi Doctors- Josef Mengele – Karl Gebhardt – Herta Oberheuser…” Video. YouTube, April 2, 2022. Accessed July 8, 2026. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTzke0HYjTo.
Baseball was forever changed by the Black Sox Scandal where several Chicago White Sox team members were indicted for taking bribes on 20 October 1920 to throw the 1919 World Series. The scandal resulted in new rules of player conduct and the creation of a baseball commissioner to rule baseball as a dictator for decades.
“Fix these faces in your memory” cartoon that ran in newspapers in 1920 after the scandal broker in 1920. Source: Anderson, Wayne (2004) “The Fix” in The Chicago Black Sox Trial: A Primary Source Account, Great Trials of the Twentieth Century, New York, United States: The Rosen Publishing Group Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
The White Sox were heavily favored to win the game in 1919 but many players were upset with being underpaid by team owner Charles Comiskey. It is believed that first baseman Chick Gandil may have initiated contact and through intermediaries New York gambler Arnold Rothstein offered money for the players to lose some of the games intentionally. Rumors of game fixing began on the first day of the game (1 Oct 1919). A lot of money was being placed against the Sox, which raised suspicions. The rumors reached the press box which started getting sports writers interested. As the games went on, plays were being watched more carefully and what the players were doing (or rather, not doing right). By Game 5 though, those involved were upset that they had not been paid and won Games 6 and 7. The gamblers struck back, and threats were made against the players and the families. Game 8 was lost by the Sox ending the series. The main conspirators received $5,000 each with Chick Gandil, who was the one who initiated the scheme, receiving $35,000.
Rumors swirled into the 1920 season and newspaper stories of corruption in other ball clubs emerged as well. Finally, what appeared to be a rigged regular season game between the Cubs and the Phillies in August 1920 led to a grand jury being convened in September to investigate the 1919 World Series. Pitcher Eddie Cicotte confessed to his role and signed a waiver of immunity. Shoeless Joe Jackson soon testified to receiving $5,000 from his teammates. Lefty Williams and Oscar Felsch also confessed as well. In October indictments for conspiracy were handed down for seven members of the White Sox, forever dubbed the Black Sox:
Arnold “Chick” Gandil (1st Base)
2. Eddie Cicotte (Pitcher)
3. Claude “Lefty” Williams (Pitcher)
4. Charles “Swede” Risberg (Shortstop)
5. Oscar “Happy” Felsch (Outfielder)
6. “Shoeless” Joe Jackson (Outfielder)
7. Fred McMullin (Infielder)
8. Buck Weaver (3rd Base)
The media and the public were unforgiving. Numerous stories appeared on how they sold out baseball and baseball fans over what happened. It was a major public relations nightmare for both the American and National leagues (they were separate leagues back then). As the trial date loomed, the incoming state attorney for Cook’s County, Robert E. Crowe, found that the original grand jury testimony was missing from the file left by his predecessor Maclay Hoyne. It is believed that his secretary, George Kenney, was responsible for the theft. And this is where a certain myth would also come about as well as dramatized in the movie Eight Men Out. In the telling of the story in the movie (and elsewhere), the signed confessions and other documents disappeared dramatically causing the trial to fall back on second-hand accounts to prove the bribery.
That is not what happened. Since sworn confessions are not done with grand juries, they were not there to begin with. Not having the original grand jury testimony though was embarrassing but it was overcome. The shorthand notes taken by the grand jury stenographers were taken to recreate the testimony and it was read to the jury during the trial. Both Eddie Cicotte and Joe Jackson though did recant their testimony given to the grand jury implicating them in the conspiracy. The trial which began on 16 June 1921 where the warm summer heat made the trial unbearable at times, ended on 2 August 1921. The jury returned acquittals of the defendants in three hours. Bill Lamb, the author of Black Sox in the Courtroom, speculates that the jury stopped paying attention do the stiffing heat in the court room. The transcripts would be used later in a civil trial brought by Joe Jackson against the White Sox and afterwards disappeared completely. What seems most likely to have happened is that they were put box into a box and forgotten. Years later people looking for them found them totally gone leaving just newspaper reports and other accounts about the trial. And since newspapers did not often relay trial proceedings accurately, it would be easy to believe they were missing and never used at trial.
Some documents from the trial have been recovered. A partial copy of the legal transcripts was found in 1988 by a law firm that once employed White Sox team counsel Alfred Austrian. The legal transcripts have Joe Jackson’s testimony to the grand jury. This is neither suspicious nor conspiratorial. It would be common for attorneys connected to the case order copies for their records. In 2007 the Chicago History Museum acquired documents related to the Black Sox Scandal. Within these documents were transcripts from the jury trial of Eddie Cicotte’s testimony. His grand jury testimony is not intact. However, parts if his testimony in Joe Jackson’s lawsuit against the White Sox did survive.
During the trial in 1921, White Sox player “Sleepy Bill” Burns gave the most damning testimony when he said that Rothstein was involved and Cicotte had said he would fix the game. White Sox owner Charles Comiskey, who many felt had mistreated his players by not paying his player enough and not paying promised bonuses, was grilled on the stand so hard by the defense counsel that he became enraged. So, the trial did confirm what was told to the grand jury: that players were bribed and the reasons were due to being underpaid by team owner Comiskey. The jury found otherwise and returned acquittals to all. And then they all had a nice dinner with the players thinking that it was all over.
Baseball Owners Respond
Prior to the jury verdict and even before the scandal broke out, the baseball team owners wanted to change how things were run. A National Commission governed the sport, but they realized things had to change. One suggestion was to get a recognized federal judge to sit on this commission and help direct baseball in a better direction. They looked at noted baseball fan and federal judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis, but he demanded that he be made sole commissioner with nearly unchecked powers as commissioner. Although there were misgivings, the baseball owners agreed to his demands and made him the sole commissioner. This was unheard of back then as usually you wanted power vested in a group rather than one person. Landis would rule baseball from 1920-1944 and he would rule it with an iron fist. He would be the first and the last commissioner to have unchecked powers as he did.
Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis, with baseball owners standing beside him, signs agreement making him Commissioner of Baseball. Date: 12 November 1920 Source (Original): Chicago Tribune. Later reprinted in The Sporting News and subsequently reprinted in other news media and books. Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Commissioner Landis Sets a New Tone for Baseball
Landis speaking at a church in 1921 is reported as saying he would tolerate any crooks in baseball.
Now that I am in baseball, just watch the game I play. If I catch any crook in baseball, the rest of his life is going to be a pretty hot one. I’ll go to any means and to anything possible to see that he gets a real penalty for his offense.
Landis watched the jury trial like anyone else to see how it would play out. The following morning after the acquittal he stated the following:
Regardless of the verdict of juries, no player that throws a ball game; no player that undertakes or promises to throw a ball game; no player that sits in a conference with a bunch of crooked players and gamblers where the ways and means of throwing ball games are planned and discussed and does not promptly tell his club about it, will ever play professional baseball. Of course, I don’t know that any of these men will apply for reinstatement, but if they do, the above are at least a few of the rules that will be enforced. Just keep in mind that, regardless of the verdict of juries, baseball is competent to protect itself against crooks, both inside and outside the game.
The eight acquitted players were put on the illegible list barring them from playing in major or minor league baseball. Comiskey released those still under contract to the team. All appeals were denied by Landis, and the Black Sox were forever banned from professional baseball. However, Jackson, Williams, Felsch, and Weaver were able to play in a semi-pro game though sports writers heavily criticized it and the public for attending. The standard that Landis applied still exists to this day in baseball, that ball players who collude with gamblers to throw a game or gamble against their own team do not belong in baseball. The fact they were acquitted did not erase what they testified to the grand jury where they had admitted to taking money. Other baseball players found to have consorted with gamblers or gambled on the game met the same fate was well. Team owners were not immune either if they were found to be involved in any aspect of gambling. Two owners who had purchased a racing horse track had to sell it. And players who also did things like playing baseball out of season for extra money could face being banned unless approved by him.
Babe Ruth found himself ineligible to play for a while because he did not get Landis’ permission to play out of season. After he met with Landis, and the issue was resolved, he was back playing baseball again for the Yankees. While Landis was not a fan of the farm system, he made sure that team owners disclosed their ownership of minor league teams and that they honored their contracts with players. He is severely criticized that he did not allow black players to play in baseball. At the same time, he understood some teams would react badly to a black ballplayer. Landis feared ugly incidents in the club house that would do more damage to the sport than gambling. Integration would not take place until after World War II and Landis’ death.
Baseball Commissioner Ends Permanent Ban for 16 Deceased Players
In May 2025 baseball commissioner Rob Manfred removed 16 deceased players and one deceased owner from the permanent ban list. “Obviously, a person no longer with us cannot represent a threat to the integrity of the game,” he wrote to the attorney seeking the ban lifted on the now deceased Pete Rose. He added: “Moreover, it is hard to conceive of a penalty that has more deterrent effect than one that lasts a lifetime with no reprieve.” The list of those removed are:
Eddie Cicotte
Black Sox Scandal 1921.
William Cox
Owner Philadelphia Phillies 1943. Banned for betting on team’s games.
Cozy Dolan
New York Giants 1924. As coach he conspired with player Jimmy O’Connell to bribe Philadelphia Phillies player Heiner Sand to throw game between both teams.
Phil Douglas
New York Giants 1922. Banned after telling player on St. Louis Browns he planned to spike the pennant race because he hated team manager McGraw.
Happy Felsch
Black Sox Scandal 1921.
Chick Gandil
Black Sox Scandal 1921.
Joe Gedeon
Black Sox Scandal 1921. Played on St. Louis Browns but conspired with gamblers behind the scandal.
Joe Jackson
Black Sox Scandal 1921
Benny Kauff
New York Giants 1921. Banned for selling stolen cars.
Fred McMullin
Black Sox Scandal 1921.
Jimmy O’Connell
New York Giants 1924. He and coach Cozy Dolan offered money to Philadelphia Phillies player Heiner Sand to throw game between both teams.
Gene Paulette
Philadelphia Phillies 1921. Banned for associating with gamblers.
Swede Risberg
Black Sox Scandal 1921.
Pete Rose
Manager Cincinnati Reds 1989. Accepted ban as part of legal settlement for gambling and related issues. Admitted to betting on baseball several years later.
Buck Weaver
Black Sox Scandal 1921.
Lefty Williams
Black Sox Scandal 1921.
Eight baseball players banned by Commissioner Landis in 1921, including Shoeless Joe Jackson, are now off the ineligible list. In a more surprising move, former baseball player and manager Pete Rose was reinstated as well. Rose had accepted a legal settlement which accepted the ban. He had initially denied claims he had bet on games but later in a book admitted he had. He remained popular despite the ban and there were calls over the years to lift it. He passed away at age 83 in 2024.
Manfred made clear that going forward those on the ineligible list will be removed once they pass away. According to current rules, the earliest that these players like Shoeless Joe Jackson or Pete Ross can be eligible for the Baseball Hall of Fame is 2028.
PBS NewsHour. “100 Years Since ‘Black Sox’ World Series, New Details Challenge Long-held Story.” Video. YouTube, October 10, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CJLapw_J0-M.
Movies
[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]
Asinof, Eliot, and John Sayles. Eight Men Out. Orion Pictures, 1989. A semi-fictional account of the Black Sox Scandal. Well worth watching as it does follow much of the real history as to what happened. Considered one of the best baseball movies to watch.
This was revised from 2025 to correct grammar and punctuation. Additionally new information added correcting the misconception that sworn written confessions made to grand jury had been lost.
On 2 July 1776, the Continental Congress adopted a resolution that formally declared that American colonies independent of Britain. A final document had to be created explaining the reasons. A committee of five composed of John Adams, Roger Sherman, Robert Morris, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson worked on a draft form for the Congress to approve. On 4 July 1776 the Declaration of Independence was published. Although John Adams believed 2 July would be remembered for generations, it would be the day the Declaration was published that would be remembered.
Declaration of Independence (1819) by John Trumbull (1756-1843). Public Domain
It would be spread in July and August in a variety of ways. It was published in newspapers throughout the American colonies. It was spread via word of mouth by horseback and by ships. Newspapers published the Declaration and was read aloud for people and troops serving the Continental Congress. It was also sent to Europe as well. The Declaration clearly spelled out the reasons for the split and roused support for the American Revolution. It was a shocking document read in London and in other capitals. For it laid out clearly and precisely the reasons why a people could, and under the proper circumstances, rise up and replace their government with something better.
Thomas Jefferson, one of the principal writers of the Declaration, wanted to convey in a commonsense manner the reasons for the split. He wanted everyone who read or heard it read aloud to know exactly why this had to occur. He drew upon well-known political works in the language he used. His most important goal was to express the American mind against the tyranny of Britain.
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any form of government becomes destructive to these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness.”
The Spirit of 76 (Yankee Doodle) by Archibald Willard (1836–1918) 1912 Public Domain va Wikimedia Commons
The Declaration announced to the world the uniqueness of the American Revolution. This was not like simply toppling a monarch and replacing him with a Cromwell or another king. It was about creating a government that believed and supported civil liberties along with the idea of self-government. A government that ruled with the consent of the governed, and not the other way around which was common in most of the world. The Declaration would become the cornerstone of what the United States would stand for and inspire others around the world to believe in it as well.
Independence Day Celebration in Centre Square, Philadelphia Painting by John Lewis Krimmel ((1786–1821) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Today many are not sure of what happened in 1776 because they were not taught or learned why this occurred. There are those who try to rewrite history to fit their own narrative, often for political or social reasons or causes. The American Revolution occurred because people had become tired and frustrated by a government that was remote to their needs. They were British citizens, and many had families that came from Britain and settled in the colonies. They assumed they had the same basic rights of all English citizens, but the government saw the colonies as a means of revenue to refill their treasury. And they had little representation back in London, unlike there where you had a House of Commons that represented each borough.
When the British imposed taxes and restrictions on the American Colonies, many were disturbed by these actions and began protesting them. Attempts in some small ways of self-governance were met with indifference or hostility. The infamous tax on tea that led to the famous Boston Tea Party (1773). While this act was not celebrated by everyone (John Adams and George Washington, both thought it was wrong), it became a defining act of defiance, and the British took note since 45 tons of tea (worth a lot of money) was destroyed. The British closed down the port, demanded compensation, ended the Massachusetts Constitution, ended elections of public officials, instituted martial law as all courts were moved to Britain, and required housing of British troops on private property. And to further snub the local Protestants, French-Canadian Catholics were allowed to worship openly.
These rules, called the Coercive Acts, led to the First Continental Congress of 1774. Many thought what happened was wrong but this was too far. The British hoped the acts would stop further acts of rebellion but ended up doing the opposite. It brought together people of all levels against the British and further convinced many that they now lived under a tyranny. The First Continental Congress, while disagreeing about the Boston Tea Party, was strongly united against Britain because of the Coercive Acts. In their declaration they formally censured Britain for these acts, imposed a boycott of British goods, declared they had a right to govern themselves, and called on colonists to form militias. For most it came down to a simple word: sovereignty. And so, with the Declaration of Independence on 4 July 1776, they declared to the world the reasons why they had to formally break with Britain and declare their independence. Those that signed the declaration knew they would become targets, and many did. Some were arrested, imprisoned, or executed. Families were destroyed. Many leaders would lose all their wealth during the war to follow. And it was no sure thing they would win.
Britain was one of the premier powers of Europe at the time, with France being the other. They had a highly trained army and navy against a ragtag group of colonials though some had military experience (like George Washington). And the British showed, along with German mercenary troops, they were indeed not to be doubted. Yet something remarkable did happen. Despite all the odds against them, battles lost, cities taken, and at times appearing hopeless, the Americans did turn it around and show the British that they were determined and resolved in their desire to win. And they did to the surprise and shock of the world. They had defeated Britain and achieved their independence. What came of it was an American republic, distinctly different from anywhere else, where the government was set to serve the people and constrained by a constitution, to prevent a tyrant from ruling outright. And the first amendments to this constitution would enshrine and limit those powers they so detested the British had done to them.
A Fourth of July fireworks display at the Washington Monument Date: July 4, 1986 Photo: Ssgt. Lono Kollars, USAF National Archives and Records Administration, National Archives Identifier (NAID) 6413316 Public Domain
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IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776
The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America
When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. — That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury:
For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States, that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. — And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.
— John Hancock
New Hampshire: Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton
Massachusetts: John Hancock, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry
Rhode Island: Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery
Connecticut: Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott
New York: William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris
New Jersey: Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark
Pennsylvania: Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross
Delaware: Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean
Maryland: Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton
Virginia: George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton
North Carolina: William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn
South Carolina: Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton
Georgia: Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton
Suggested Reading
[Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases. This post may contain affiliate links, which means I may receive a small commission at no extra cost to you.]
July, from the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry Limbourg brothers (fl. 1402–1416) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
July, named for Julius Caesar, is the seventh month on the Gregorian calendar. It used to be called Quintillis (meaning five) on the old Roman calendar since that calendar started in March. Usually the hottest month in the Northern Hemisphere but below the equator, since it is winter the coldest month. While people often think that the “Dog days of Summer” refers to canines panting due to the heat, it refers to an astronomic event. During July the star Sirius can be seen in the night sky along with the constellation Canis Major (the largest dog).
The July Supermoon (aka Buck Moon, Thunder Moon, Hay Moon etc.) occurs when the moon is closest to Earth making it appear larger than normal. And it can be either a full or new moon. Buck Moon comes from noticing that deer shed their antlers every year and start growing new ones in July, hence Buck Moon. For a full list of July astronomical events, go to timeanddate.com.
A Fourth of July fireworks display at the Washington Monument Date: July 4, 1986 Photo: Ssgt. Lono Kollars, USAF National Archives and Records Administration, National Archives Identifier (NAID) 6413316 Public Domain
Two major holidays occur during July: the Fourth of July in the U.S. and Bastille Day (14 July) in France. The Fourth of July (Independence Day) is celebrated on 4 July to celebrate the American colonies declaring independence from Great Britain in 1776. Bastille Day commemorates the storming of the Bastille in Paris on 14 July 1789 and considered the start of the French Revolution.
Old Adages for July
Ne’er trust a July sky.
If ant hills are high in July, the coming winter will be hard.
As July, so next January.
No tempest, good July,
Lest the corn look ruely.
Whatever July and August do not boil,
September can not fry.
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