The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 would result in a chain of events leading to World War I in August 1914.
Map of Europe 1914 (in French) Varmin, 2010 via Wikimedia Commons
In 1914 Europe was divided into several major players: Great Britain, France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary. Russia, the largest country of all because of its sheer territory, was not considered a major player. It was a country that had a small industrial base but was mostly agrarian based society. Its defeat in a recent war with Japan showed how it was quite behind the Europeans in terms of building up a powerful military to protect its interests. Britain and Germany (with France often supporting, but not always the British) often clashed over colonies and related interests.
The Austrian Hungarian Empire was the second largest country in Europe after Russia and a multinational state with many different peoples under it. It was also a major industrial power and with its access to the Adriatic, a naval power as well. It was a dual monarchy-Austria Empire and Kingdom of Hungary-and coequal in power. Both states conducted joint foreign relations, defense, and financial policies but left the administration under their individual states. Because it was a polyglot empire, it had a lot of different languages. The major ones were German, Hungarian and Croatian. Because of its industrial capacity, Austria-Hungary was a major exporter of electric home and industrial appliances making it third after the United States and Germany.
Unrest though within Austria-Hungary had become an issue with various groups wanting independence for their peoples. And on this particular day, Archduke Ferdinand was visiting the Imperial armed forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This area had been annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908, which angered Serbian nationalists who believed it should be part of Serbia. His visit hatched a plot to assassinate the archduke. 19-year-old Gavrilo Princip shot the royal couple at point-blank range while they were in their official procession. Princip was part of a group that was well armed, trained, and assisted by the Serbian government. Serbia though had a major supporter in Russia. This meant any reaction to Serbian support of the assassination team would draw in Russia, so Austria asked Germany to back them should conflict break out.
The first page of the edition of the Domenica del Corriere, an Italian paper, with a drawing by Achille Beltrame depicting Gavrilo Princip killing Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo. (Cropped) 12 July 1914, Achille Beltrame Public Domain (via Wikimedia Commons)
Germany warned to do it quickly while sympathy for Ferdinand was still high. Austria debated its action, and this took time and was not until mid-July they delivered an ultimatum to Serbia.
Russia had already decided to intervene while Serbia was preparing its reply. However, the Russian military knew it was not yet ready for a general war. Yet they saw the hand of Germany in the ultimatum and were determined to show support for Serbia. Once the Serbians knew that Russia was mobilizing, it made it easier for Serbia to defy Austria-Hungary. Germany became nervous about the possibility of Russian troops massing on its border. Russia was allied with France, and Germans had figured on fighting France first rather than Russia. They thought Russia would take longer to get its forces ready. France, for its part, now realizing war with Germany and Austria-Hungary was a real possibility, began mobilizing as well.
Britain, which had an informal alliance with France and Russia, was not committed to war with Germany. At that point, they were still on friendly terms and wanted to remain neutral. Germany made some promises to further that neutrality. However, the German plans to invade France would involve it invading Belgium, a neutral state. This upset many in British leadership and it was decided on moral terms they had to enter the conflict.
By the end of July, the assassination of an archduke had become barely remembered as the belligerents all lined up. Germany and Austria Hungary (central powers) vs Britain, France, and Russia. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July. On 1 August, Germany declared war on Belgium, France, and Russia. On 4 August, Britain declared war on Germany and on 6 August, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia. The “Guns of August” had arrived, and war would be on until 1918.
The peace that had existed, fragile at best of times, was shattered.
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IV corps of the Grande Armeé in the invasion of Russia (1812) Albrecht Adam (1786 – 1862) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Russia on 24 June 1812 in retaliation for Czar Alexander I not accepting Bonaparte’s Continental System. Napoleon assembled the largest fighting force up to that time called the Grande Armee. With over 500,000 soldiers and staff, it marched into Russia seeking a quick victory. It was not to be. The Russian Army under General Mikhail Kutuzov was in retreat refusing a full-scale engagement against the powerful French. As Russia troops retreated, they burned everything leaving nothing for the French to find.
By September, Napoleon had engaged the Russians at Battle of Borodino. The battle was indecisive but resulted in large losses on both sides. On 14 September he arrived in Moscow to find it empty as the people had evacuated. The Russian Army too had left leaving the city to Napoleon. With winter approaching, Napoleon decided to rest and use it for his winter quarters. Russian partisans though set fires in the city the next day resulting in the quarters he had selected destroyed. He waited for a month hoping for a surrender which never came. Now with winter closing in, Napoleon decided to leave. The retreat though was more difficult than they could have imagined.
Fire of Moscow (1812) Viktor Mazurovsky (1859–1944) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
An early winter set in making it harder on his troops and food was rationed. The Russians, it seems, had not fully retreated, and began attacking the troops in the rear. Cossacks with very sharp lances attacked ruthlessly. They made it to the Berezina River in November but found Russians waiting for them. Using makeshift bridges, Napoleon and his troops started crossing but the Russians attacked. Napoleon burned the bridges stranding over 10,000 on the other side to be captured or killed by the Russians. Napoleon, in a hurry to return to Paris, would eventually leave his troops behind. The remaining force would eventually return home but fewer than a 100,000 made it back home. The loss of over 400,000 was staggering and called into question his leadership of the French Empire.
Aftermath
The disastrous invasion of Russia has long been studied by historians and military strategists. His basic idea of invading was sound, but he underestimated how long it would take and the will of the Russians to make him pay dearly for every inch he gained. Napoleon thought it would be a quick victory, but it turned into a long painful retreat with an early winter, few food supplies, and his army being attacked by Russians. If you read accounts of those who survived, it is truly horrific the conditions they had to retreat under. Dead animals used for fuel; bodies stacked in windows for insulation. If you recall Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back scene where Han Solo rips open his now dead ride so they can crawl inside it for warmth, this happened for real here.
Napoleon’s withdrawal from Russia by Adolph Northen (1828-1876) Public Domain (via Wikimedia Commons)
His defeat in Russia strengthened his enemies. Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Sweden would now ally with Russia against Napoleon. British forces under Wellington were slowly but steadily pushing the French out of Spain. While Napoleon would have some victories, two defeats hurt his reign enormously. The Battle of Vittoria in Spain on 21 June 1813 would end French domination of Spain. His brother Joseph that he had put on the throne, was forced to flee for his life. Sadly, the royal crown worn by Spanish kings was lost in the melee of the retreat and never to be found again. And in October 1813, he suffered a crushing defeat in the Battle of Leipzig. Paris would fall the following March forcing him into exile. He would briefly return in 1815 but be defeated again in the Battle of Waterloo
Invading Russia has not proven successful for any conquering general. You might get initial successes, as Hitler did, but it seems to always turn around against the invader. Hitler, like Napoleon, thought the campaign would be quick. Instead after their initial victories, Operation Barbarossa ran into real problems. General Franz Halder realized he had sorely underestimated how many divisions the Russians could field. And because of the long distances involved, it became very hard for Germans to hold their lines. Moscow was in at sight at one point, but they never got there due to the long expanse of territory, supply issues, and underestimating the strength of Russia. Like Napoleon, the German forces were stalled. Halder believed without a powerful lightning strike, there was little chance for success. Owing to policy and strategy differences with Hitler, he was dismissed. The damage was done and the losses substantial. The Russians would push eventually the Germans out of their country and follow them all the way back to Berlin.
Suggested Reading
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On 22 June 1940, the formal surrender of France to Germany was concluded. Signed on 21 June 1940 at Compiegne in the same railway car in which Germany surrendered in 1918, it was a major triumph for Hitler. He also sat in the exact same chair that Marshal Ferdinand Foch sat in receiving the German surrender in 1918. The site where the treaty was signed, a monument to France’s defeat of Germany in World War I, was destroyed and the railway car shipped to Germany.
German Troops in Paris, 14 June 1940 Photo: Heinz Fremde (1907-1987) German Federal Archives:Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-126-0350-26A / Fremke, Heinz / CC-BY-SA 3.0
France at the outset of the war was considered to have the best professional army in continental Europe. Aside from trained soldiers, they had tanks and heavy artillery. And, of course, the famous Maginot Line. This was a series of fortifications near the German border meant to deter an invasion force. The hills and woods of the Ardennes were considered impenetrable in the north but there was a caveat as General Philippe Petain noted. You had to destroy the invasion force before it exited that area. France and Germany had officially been at war since 3 Sep 1939 when France, allied with England, offered support to the Polish government.
French forces briefly entered the Saar on 7 September but withdrew after meeting a very thin line of German defense on the undermanned Siegfried line. With most of its forces concentrated in Poland at the time, Germany did not have the capacity to stand up to France’s 98 divisions and tanks that were being committed. However French hesitation and wanting to avoid total war had them withdraw forces starting on 17 September and done a month later. It began a time called the Phony War where both Germany and France were armed and ready, but nothing was happening. Hitler had hoped he could make peace with England and France but that was not to be.
On 10 May 1940, Germany attacked France. German armored units made a push through the Ardennes, and then through the Somme valley to surround the allied units in Belgium. British, Belgian and French forces were pushed to the sea. British forces were evacuated at Dunkirk, which is an exciting tale of its own. During the six-week campaign Germany conquered France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and The Netherlands. German troops marched unopposed into Paris on 14 June. By 18 June with the collapse of both the French government (which had fled) and the military, negotiations began between French and German military officers.
At the meeting on 21 June, Hitler read the preamble and like Marshal Foch left to leave Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, commander-in-chief of the Wehrmacht to handle the details. There were several objectives that the Germans wanted and got. They wanted French North Africa and the French Navy out of the war. Also, they wanted to deny the British use of French territories since they could not possibly defend them. Occupied France was 3/5ths of the country which included the key ports on the French Channel and Atlantic and to the Spanish border. The Free Zone was administered by a newly formed French government in Vichy with Marshal Petain as its president.
The Weeping Frenchman (Marseilles, 1940) This iconic picture of a Frenchman weeping is often wrongly attributed as being in Paris on the Champs-Élysées. In actuality, the man was in Marseilles and is weeping because the French troops are departing taking with them their regiment flags to North Africa in September 1940. It first appeared in Life magazine in 1941.
Vichy France, as it became known, was authoritarian and reversed the policies of previous administrations. The media became tightly controlled, anti-Semitism was propagated, and labor unions put under strict controls. Vichy France kept French territories and the navy under French rather than German control. With the German army elsewhere, unoccupied France was generally free from military control. However, due to its neutrality it was forbidden to assist nations at war with Germany. Despite it being unoccupied, Vichy had to conform to German policies including identifying foreign nationals, deporting stateless persons, and of course assisting Germans in locating and ultimately deporting French Jews to be murdered in the death camps.
The treaty was formally concluded on 22 June 1940 and went into effect on 25 June 1940. A separate treaty between France and Italy was signed as well. Italy initially only wanted a small portion of France (about 832 square miles with the largest town being Menton). In November 1942, after Germany seized a large portion of Vichy, Italy got control over Toulon and the eastern part of Provence up to the Rhone River. Corsica and Nice were also to become Italian occupied but that did not occur. During the period of Italian occupation, Jews were relatively safe as Italian authorities declined German requests to turn over Jews to them. Once Italy deposed Mussolini and later signed an armistice with the Allies in 1943, Germans quickly moved in and rounded up all Jews they could locate. Over 3,000 would be deported.
Suggested Reading
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Wouk, H. (2018, December). Winds of War [Special Collector’s Edition]. Paramount. This excellent six-part miniseries is based on the Herman Wouk novel of the same name. And he wrote the script for this, so it hues close to the book (but does compress or eliminate some characters or situations). Through the Henry family, we get to see the scope of the looming war approaching and their involvement in it. The acting is superb, though the actress Ali MacGraw is miscast as Natalie Jastrow. Aside from that, this is a riveting depiction of the events leading up to World War II. It is one of the best miniseries ever made, and it shows with the high production quality and attention to detail.
With the Summer Solstice today, summer officially begins in the Northern Hemisphere. Below the equator, the seasons are reversed, and it is the Winter Solstice. The June Solstice takes place between June 20-22. To determine the exact time of the Summer Solstice in your area, go to timeanddate.com.
This illustration shows how daylight falls on Earth at the seasonal points. Image: NASA
Summer is the warmest of all the seasons with daylight hours the longest. The Summer Solstice has the longest day of sunlight. Prior to the solstice, daybreak gets earlier, and sunsets much later. While it gets warm and dry in North America (except for thunderstorms and hurricanes) and Europe, other areas particularly in Asia see tremendous amounts of rain called monsoons. Summer is usually time off for students in schools and universities. Also, many take time off from work to celebrate vacation with their family and friends. A lot of sporting events and outdoor concerts take place during this time as well. In areas of the far north, the sun never truly sets during this period (and in wintertime the sun never really rises either).
Summer field in Belgium (Hamois). The blue flower is cornflower and the red one a corn poppy. Image credit: Luc Viatour (via Wikimedia Commons)
The Summer Solstice (or the local beginning of summer depending on custom and tradition) is celebrated in different ways. Some light bonfires, houses are decorated with festive banners, and special foods are eaten. Some go to Stonehenge and watch the sunrise of the first rays of summer. In Sweden, it is tradition to have the first strawberries of the season and the first full moon after the solstice is called the Strawberry moon. In some places, Midsummer’s Day is celebrated on 24 June preceded by Midsummer’s Eve. Since summer means then end of long and dark winters in some places of Europe, lighting torches and bonfires became a way to note it, sometimes in town squares or mountainsides.
Father and son reading the Sunday newspaper in Alexandria, VA. Scenes similar to this are found all over the United States because of wartime transportation problems. Photo: Ann Rosener, Office of War Information. 1943 U.S. Library of Congress, Digital Id#fsa 8d19164 Public Domain
Father’s Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of June in the United States. The movement to recognize fathers began in a West Virginia church in 1908. The sermon that day asked to remember 362 men who had perished in a mine explosion the previous December and many of the men were fathers. In 1909 Sonora Smart Dodd of Spokane, Washington tried to establish an equivalent of Mother’s Day for male parents. She had been raised by a widower and believed the recognition was due. She promoted it so well to local churches, service organizations, and government officials that Washington State celebrated Father’s Day on June 19,1910. The movement to recognize fathers spread slowly but in 1924 President Calvin Coolidge urged state governments to observe Father’s Day. Since then most states now recognize the third Sunday of June as Father’s Day but it is not a public holiday (neither is Mother’s Day).
Father’s Day is also celebrated in many countries. In Europe and most Spanish speaking countries it is celebrated on St. Joseph’s Day on March 19. St. Joseph is the patron saint of fathers.
Dad & Children Crimson Rose publicdomainpibtures.net
Prayer for Fathers
“God our Father, in your wisdom and love you made all things. Bless these men, that they may be strengthened as Christian fathers. Let the example of their faith and love shine forth. Grant that we, their sons and daughters, may honor them always with a spirit of profound respect. Grant this through Christ our Lord. Amen.” (Author unknown)
Juneteenth Emancipation Day Celebration, June 19, 1900, Texas. Original source: The Portal to Texas History Austin History Center, Austin Public Library. Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
In 1863, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation freeing slaves in Confederate states. Most African Americans would not learn of this act until after the areas they lived in were liberated by Union troops. On 19 June 1865, Union troops entered Galveston, Texas (Texas was a Confederate state during the war) and learned that they were freed. Celebrations began with prayers, feasts, and dance. The following year it would take place throughout Texas on the same date becoming an annual tradition and holiday in 1980. The celebration would spread to other states and sometimes recognized as a state holiday as well. As a result of its importance to African Americans and to the United States as well, the U.S. Congress made it a national holiday in 2021 with President Biden signing the resolution of Congress, It formally began as a holiday on Monday, 20 June 2022. Per federal law, since June 19th fell on a Sunday this year, it was celebrated the following Monday as a national holiday. The formal name of the holiday is Juneteenth National Independence Day.
Battle Cry of Freedom Lyrics
Oh we’ll rally round the flag, boys, we’ll rally once again,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom
And we’ll rally from the hillside, we’ll gather from the plain,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom.
Chorus
The Union forever! Hurrah, boys, hurrah!
Down with the traitor, up with the star;
While we rally round the flag, boys, rally once again,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
Oh we’re springing to the call for three hundred thousand more,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
And we’ll fill our vacant ranks of our brothers gone before,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
Chorus
The Union forever! Hurrah, boys, hurrah!
Down with the traitor, up with the star;
While we rally round the flag, boys, rally once again,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
We will welcome to our numbers the loyal, true, and brave,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
And although he may be poor, he shall never be a slave,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
Chorus
The Union forever! Hurrah, boys, hurrah!
Down with the traitor, up with the star;
While we rally round the flag, boys, rally once again,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
So we’re springing to the call from the East and from the West,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
And we’ll hurl the rebel crew from the land we love best,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
The Union forever! Hurrah, boys, hurrah!
Down with the traitor, up with the star;
While we rally round the flag, boys, rally once again,
Shouting the battle cry of freedom!
Composed and lyrics by George Frederick Root in 1862.
(Note: There are variations of the lyrics, but this is the standard Union version]
Bligh and other officers and crew put adrift by HMS Bounty mutineers on 29 April 1789. Painting: Robert Dodd (1748-1815) Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
On 14 June 1789 Lieutenant William Bligh of British Royal Navy who formerly commanded HMS Bounty and eighteen others arrived at Timor in the East Indies after nearly a 4,000-mile trek in a small boat. Bligh and the others were put on the boat back on 28 April after Acting Lieutenant Fletcher Christian and others led a mutiny on the Bounty. The ship was tasked with transporting Tahitian breadfruit saplings to the British Caribbean colonies. The Bounty arrived for a five-month layover in 1789. During that time many of the crew lived ashore and formed relationships with the locals. This caused a serious issue for discipline and Bligh began handing out harsh discipline and criticism of the crew.
When Bligh and his other supporters were put into the boat, they had 25 gallons of water, 150 pounds of bread, 30 pounds of pork, six quarts of rum, and six bottles of wine. They were not expected to survive but through Bligh’s exceptional navigation skills and careful rationing of the supplies, they made and survived the ordeal. For the mutineers, life was not as it was hoped. Some of the crew decided to stay in Tahiti despite the possibility of British capture. Christian and six others including some Tahitian men and women ultimately settled on Pitcairn Island about 1,000 miles east of Tahiti.
Aftermath
After returning to England, the HMS Pandora was dispatched to Tahiti in April 1790. 14 of the mutineers were captured but failed to find Christian or his party, On the return voyage Pandora ran aground on the Great Barrier Reef resulting in 31 crew dead and 3 of the mutineers as well. After a court martial in 1792, four were acquitted, three pardoned, and three hanged.. The fate of Fletcher Christian was not determined until 1808. An American ship drawn by a fire visited Pitcairn. Only one mutineer, John Adams, was still alive. The Bounty had been scuttled and all of the other mutineers (including Christian) had been killed either by each other or by the Tahitians. He was not arrested and today many of the descendants still live on Pitcairn, which is a British Overseas Territory
Rear Admiral William Bligh by Alexander Huey, 1814 National Library of Australia Public Domain (US via Wikimedia Commons)
HMS Bounty was not a ship of the line, but a small commercial vessel purchased by the Royal Navy for the botanical mission. As such command of a vessel of this kind would fall to a senior lieutenant. Bligh was selected because he had served under James Cook in his third and final voyage (1776–1780). After that voyage, like many officers of that time, he was put on half-pay as the American war was over. He commanded a commercial vessel before being given command of HMS Bounty. After the court martial in 1792, the general opinion of Bligh was negative both in the Royal Navy and by the public. And the fact that those who survived confirmed some of the cruel and possibly paranoid actions also fed into a negative opinion of him. He would be put on half-pay and wait a long time for his next appointment in 1797 where he commanded HMS Director at the Battle of Camperdown (October 1797). He would next command the HMS Glatton in Battle of Copenhagen (March 1801) and be praised by Lord Nelson for his actions. While in command of the HMS Warrior he was court-martialed for use of bad language to his officers and officially reprimanded in 1805. He was then sent in 1806 as Governor to New South Wales in Australia, a curious decision considering his history. And what unfolded caused significant embarrassment.
His style of leadership was a firm disciplinarian which made him ill-suited to the position where you had to deal with wealthy and important landowners on one hand, and powerful officials on the other. He managed to anger both with his confrontational style. He did face a serious problem in that some of these wealthy landowners and crown officials were engaged in private trading. His attempt to shut them down was met with the Rum Rebellion in 1808. On 26 Jan 1808, Major George Johnson of the Royal Marines led 400 soldiers of the New South Wales Corp to Government House in Sydney and arrested Bligh.
Bligh was placed on HMS Porpoise where he would remain until January 1810. Bligh tried and failed to get the British authorities in Hobart to support him in retaking New South Wales. Bligh would be allowed to leave in 1810 and eventually returned to England for Major Johnson’s court martial. The trial court sentenced him to be dismissed from the Royal Marines, a very mild sentence considering what he had done. He would return to Australia without his officer’s commission but his wealth from the private trade deals were more than sufficient for him to live a comfortable life.
As the Royal Navy promoted on seniority and patronage rather than by merit, Bligh would be promoted to rear admiral in 1810 and in 1814 admiral of the blue. He would never hold command again even during the height of the Napoleonic War when commands were available. He would design the North Bull Wall on the River Liffey in Dublin. He also mapped Dublin Bay. Bligh died on 7 Dec 1817 at the age of 63. He was buried at the family plot in St. Mary’s, Lambeth though now the church is now the Garden Museum. His tomb is topped with a breadfruit.
Sources and Further Reading
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Mutiny on the Bounty. Directed by Frank Lloyd, MGM, 1935. This excellent movie stars Clark Gable as Fletcher Christian and Charles Laughton as Captain Bligh. The movie comes from a time when epic swashbuckling action movies filled the screen. The acting is top rate, and the action will not leave you disappointed. Perhaps not historical as some would like, but a great movie to watch.
Mutiny on the Bounty. Directed by Lewis Milestone, Arcola Pictures, 1962. This 1962 movie in stunning color features Marlon Brando as Christian and Trevor Howard as Bligh. They filmed some scenes in French Polynesia giving the mostly fictional account a good telling. The film gets mostly positive reviews though some think Brando’s performance was not as good as it could have been. There were a lot of problems in filming, the change of directors, Marlon Brando causing some issues and so forth. Still worth taking a look at considering the lush scenes the movie has, along with some good acting as well. It certainly shows the changed times from 1935 when some things were not mentioned or referenced.
The Bounty. Directed by Roger Donaldson, Dino De Laurentiis Company, 1984. This updated telling of the famous mutiny is told via flashbacks as Bligh is giving testimony in his court martial. Anthony Hopkins plays Bligh while Mel Gibson is Christian. Previous movies have shown Bligh as an outright tyrant, which was not entirely the case. However, he did seem to get stricter as time went on during the voyage and in Tahiti. This movie tries to show both sides and seems to do it well for the most part. While it gets positive reviews, some think Gibson was too bland. However,it is more realistic in showing what it was like to be on a ship back then. And how Tahiti would seem like a paradise when the women walked around topless, which was something no European was used to at all.
Photograph of painting depicting Franklin’s famous kite and key experiment. Circa 1911. Artist: Charles E. Mills (American, 1856-1956) U.S. Library of Congress, Digital Id#cph 3b42841
On 10 June 1752 Benjamin Franklin conducted his famous–and legendary–experiment on electricity during a thunderstorm. He was not trying to discover electricity but determine the connection between lightning and static electricity
Franklin constructed a kite with a wire at the top to act as a lightning rod. The kite’s bottom used hemp string that once wetted with rain would become a conductor for an electrical charge. And with a silk string attached, he stood in the doorway of the shed as the thunderstorm approached. His son William helped him get the kite airborne. For a while nothing seemed to happen and he was ready to give up when he noticed several loose strands of hemp were erect. As he moved his finger near the key he had attached, he felt electricity. Using a Leyden jar, the static electricity was collected to be discharged later.
He reported his experiment in the Pennsylvania Gazette (19 October 1752) documenting what he had learned of the connection between lightning and static electricity. Up to this point in time, it was thought electricity consisted of two opposite forces. Franklin determined it was instead a common element and fluid leading to the single fluid theory. Simply put, when you charge something (like a car battery or something similar), you have a positive charge (+) that flows to the negative (-). Franklin created new language that we still use today to describe how this force is used:
Battery
Charge
Condenser
Conductor
Plus
Minus
A similar experiment had been conducted in France by Thomas-François Dalibard a year earlier. A year later Georg Wilhelm Richmann attempted the same thing in St. Petersburg. The outcome though was tragic: he was struck by ball lightning and died. Ball lightning is rare and scientists to this day are baffled by its properties. Franklin developed the lightning rod because of this experiment. This device allows lightning to pass harmlessly through the rod and cables into the ground avoiding any conductive material. Houses and buildings could be protected from lightning strikes. From there it would be used on ships and much later installed on airplanes to protect them as well. Franklin received the Copley Award from the Royal Society for his experiments.
Over the years his experiment got mixed up and rewritten becoming a myth. Instead of standing in the shed, he was outside and the kite was struck by lightning. Except that never happened yet it was taught in schools as fact for quite a long time. Mythbusters took on the myth and showed if Franklin had done it as the myth said he did, he would have been killed. They did prove that his real experiment was valid as they flew a kite on a sunny day and got static electricity.
Pre-1692 Port Royal Illustration Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
According to the Greek philosopher Plato, Atlantis was sunk as retribution by the gods. Today most historians and archaeologists consider Atlantis a myth (but likely based on the actual demise of the island of Thera and resultant decline of the Minoans), but the sinking of Port Royal into the Caribbean Sea is true.
Port Royal was founded in 1494 in southeast Jamaica on the peninsula of what was later called Kingston Harbor. The Spanish did not think it important at the time, but the island was strategic due its location to a major trade route. Sugar cane was the important crop and the island remained under Spanish control until the British seized the island in 1655. The British would build extensively in Port Royal (originally called Cagway) adding houses, shops, warehouses, and two forts. It became the unofficial capitol of Jamaica (Spanish Town was the capital until Kingston). Port Royal, due to its location on the Spanish Main, would become the home of privateers. Back then since most navies were small, governments would commission ship captains to wage war on their enemies at sea. Privateers, armed with the Letters of Marque that authorized them to act for the crown, allowed them to attack a country’s enemies on the seas. Privateers could seize ships and their cargoes to be sold for profit. The difference between a pirate and a privateer was simple. A pirate operated without a Letter of Marque and was a menace to all subject to death when caught.
Port Royal became a wealthy city due to the privateering and one of the largest cities in the Caribbean with over 6,500 people at its height. Its reputation as both gaudy for its display of wealth, and for its loose morals, made it one of the most notorious cities in the world at the time. Privateers would spend money in taverns (there was one for every ten people), gambling, and prostitution. Merchants of all kinds also dipped into the privateer purse by selling all kinds of products to them. The city ran out of room, so they built a landfill. While there was some advice to use wood, many choose instead to build with brick not realizing they were building on sand and not bedrock. By 1692 the need for privateers had ebbed. When the British signed the Treaty of Madrid in 1670, it ended their need to raid Spanish ships and cities. The famous privateer of the era, Henry Morgan, ended up serving in the Jamaican government and even being governor at times. Privateers could still use Port Royal, but they had to be careful to never attack British ships if they had a Letter of Marque from another power. The French still issued them in their war against Spain, though tensions between Britain and France were often difficult as well.
Pirates also had emerged as a new threat as they attacked everyone. Anti-piracy laws were soon enacted, and Port Royal was no haven for them. They would be shot at if they approached, their ships seized, and its captain and crew faced death or imprisonment. Port Royal, which had grown wealthy off the privateers, now wanted to end its bad reputation as a city for extreme drunkenness, debauchery, and illicit wealth. But on 7 June 1692, a series of three earthquakes hit starting at 11:43 a.m. All of Jamaica was shaken violently but the worst was at Port Royal. Buildings on the landfill or over water collapsed and sank. Then the tsunami arrived, putting half of the city under water. Spanish Town was completely destroyed and landslides inland claimed lives.
An estimated 3,000 people died from the earthquakes, tsunami, and landslides. Many died later from looters, injuries, and diseases. Small parts of the city did survive and attempts to rebuild were unsuccessful. As news spread that the wicked city was gone, many cheered its demise. Kingston became the new center of commerce and trade from that point on. Today it is known as the city that sank and a world heritage site. Tourists now visit the site and scientists of all kinds still study what happened. Liquefaction is one of the culprits of its demise, something that now explains how some cities built were destroyed in ancient times such as Helike in Greece or Thonis-Heracleion in Egypt.
Map showing shoreline changes caused by the 1692 Port Royal earthquake Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Vallar, Cindy. “Pirates & Privateers: The History of Maritime Piracy – Pirate Havens Port Royal.” Accessed June 8, 2026. http://www.cindyvallar.com/havens4.html.
Documentaries & Films
The History Guy: History Deserves to Be Remembered. “Pirates and the Earthquake That Destroyed Port Royal.” Video. YouTube, June 7, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EypOHCv2JsY.
National Geographic Wild. “Best Documentary History of Port Royal Underwater Cities.” YouTube, 22 Jan. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=B1VLUevIWIs.
Midway Atoll, 24 November 1941 Public Domain (Official U.S. Navy photo)
Background
June 1942 saw the Empire of Japan dominate in Asia ruling a sizable empire. It began in the late 19th century when it seized Formosa (Taiwan) in 1895. The conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War (1905-1905) saw it acquire Korea. It would take Manchuria (renamed Manchukuo) in 1931. China was invaded in 1937 and seized the key cities of Shanghai, Nanking, and Peking. When France fell to Germany in 1940, Japan invaded to prevent it being used to supply China. Vichy France made a deal with Japan to keep it neutral but allow it within their sphere of power. Japan attacked and conquered Hong Kong after heavy fighting on Christmas Day 1941. Fortress Singapore, so named because of its impressive frontal defense, was defeated when the Japanese army came from the lightly defended rear (what was believed to be an impassable jungle) and conquered it on 15 Feb 1942. The Dutch East Indies (Indonesia today) were conquered by March 1942 and The Philippines in May. Japan, supported by local independence groups, also invaded Burma in 1941 and would finish in April 1942. Japan would use Burma to attack British held India. The Japanese began attacking northern Australia to prevent it from being used as a staging area.
Japan had succeeded in tossing out the imperial powers and absorbing them into its own empire. The only major power they were concerned with was the United States and the attack on 7 December 1941 had destroyed many of their battleships. Considered a success by the Japanese, they had hoped it would force the Americans to stay out of the conflict. However, the U.S. desire to fight back surprised them. The Doolittle Raid of 18 April 1942 where American bombers bombed Tokyo (they flew off aircraft carriers to accomplish this) stunned the Japanese government. And the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942 made them realize they had to defeat the American fleet. They decided to draw out the American fleet for a battle near Midway Island for a decisive battle. They saw themselves as the masters of the Pacific; the Battle of Midway would change that forever.
The Broken Japanese Code
A special naval intelligence unit called HYPO had broken it in March resulting in much of the plan becoming known to the U.S. They learned that the attack in Alaska was a feint to draw naval forces away from being used at Midway. They also learned that behind the Japanese carrier strike force was a large destroyer force sailing to meet them and deliver a decisive blow to any remaining U.S. ships after the attack on Midway. The American task force assembled were three aircraft carriers– Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown – seven heavy cruisers, 1 light cruiser, 15 destroyers, and 16 submarines. The Yorktown had to be quickly patched up after its recent encounter with the Japanese and needed some new aircraft and pilots. Admiral William Halsey was put in charge but due to illness had to be replaced by Rear Admiral Raymond Spruance. Spruance would command the Enterprise and Hornet along with her support vessels. Rear Admiral Frank Fletcher was in command of Yorktown.
The Japanese committed four carriers, 2 battleships, 2 heavy cruisers and 1 light cruiser, 12 destroyers, 13 submarines, and 16 floatplanes. Their support force were 4 heavy cruisers, 2 destroyers, and 12 floatplanes. The U.S. had 233 carrier-based aircraft to the Japanese 248. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, who had planned the attack on Pearl Harbor, designed the complex Midway battle. Part of his plan involved dispersing his forces so that they would not be readily seen by the Americans. He also believed he would be facing only two carriers, the Enterprise and Hornet, because th?e Yorktown had been badly damaged at the Battle of Coral Sea. However, the Americans had learned most of the plan from the decoded transmissions. And the planned dispersal proved more difficult as it required the support ships to keep up with them, which proved to be more difficult than originally thought.
The Battle
On 4 June 1942, Admiral Nagumo aboard the carrier Akagi launched the initial air attack on Midway composed of dive and torpedo bombers escorted by Zeroes. PBYs launched that morning from Midway would sight two Japanese carriers and radar picked up incoming Japanese fighters. Midway sent up unescorted bombers to delay the attack while the fighters remained behind to defend Midway. Midway came under heavy attack and its air interceptors took a heavy beating fighting the Japanese. Anti-aircraft fire from ground personnel proved to be more precise. Midway took a beating but was still functional and could launch planes.
Meanwhile scouting reports flying ahead of the American carriers placed the Japanese carriers at the extreme range for air attack. Making matters more difficult was the fact that Japanese scout planes had sighted the American fleet. Despite the extreme range, Spruance ordered the planes to be launched and increased the speed of the task force to close the distance. The torpedo squadrons left first but due to mechanical problems in launching the dive-bombers, had to fly unescorted. They would reach the Japanese and be quickly shot out of the sky by Japanese Zeroes and anti-aircraft fire. Not one torpedo launched did any serious damage.
The pilots of the U.S. Navy Torpedo Squadron 8 (VT-8) aboard the aircraft carrier USS Hornet (CV-8), circa mid-May 1942, shortly before battle of Midway. They flew unescorted by fighters to attack the Japanese aircraft carriers. The slow moving planes were no match for the fast Zeroes that attacked them. Not one torpedo they launched did any damage. However because of their bravery, the Zeroes were out of position when the American dive-bombers arrived allowing them to bomb the Japanese carriers. Ensign George Gay was the only survivor. Photo: May 1942 Source: Naval History and Heritage Command, digital ID NH 93595 Public Domain
Admiral Nagumo had a problem. His planes returned from Midway and were being re-armed for the next bombing run. But he had just gotten a report that the American navy was in the area. Its exact composition was unknown. So, he ordered a change in the ordnance for the attack planes. Instead of attacking land-based targets they would arm to destroy ships. The result was there a lot of ordnance out on the deck on the carriers where this was being done. With the Japanese combat air patrol out of position having dealt with the torpedo squadrons they were not able to intercept the next wave of attack. American dive-bomber squadrons from Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown would seemingly arrive nearly at the same time. It was one of the greatest coincidences in military history. Three Japanese carriers–Akagi, Kaga, and Soryu–would be sunk that day. The surviving carrier Hiryu counter-attacked by sending our air squadrons to attack any American carrier they could find. They found Yorktown and dropped three bombs heavily damaging the ship but not sinking it. Admiral Fletcher moved over to cruiser Astoria while it was being repaired. A second air attack an hour later would further damage Yorktown. She would later sink when being towed on 6 June by a torpedo fired by a Japanese submarine, which also sank the destroyer Hamman.
The Japanese believed they had turned the tide and would be able to go on with the Midway plan. They knew a huge fleet of destroyers and support craft was on the way. However, the Hiryu was found late in the afternoon. An air attack by Enterprise and Yorktown bombers resulted in four or possibly five bombs seriously crippling her. The fires prevented any planes taking off or landing. The crew would evacuate and later Hiryu would sink. Spruance, not wanting to risk exposure to Japanese forces and wanting to protect Midway, would retire to the west. Admiral Yamamoto still wanted to invade Midway and proceeded on course. Had Spruance not changed course, the remaining two carriers of the American fleet would have been exposed to Yamamoto’s destroyers. Spruance would go after the stragglers. Yamamoto ultimately ordered the fleet back to Japan not knowing the full composition of the American forces that might be pursuing.
The U.S. Navy lost 1 carrier, 1 destroyer, 150 aircraft and 307 killed. Many of those killed were from the torpedo squadrons that lost 80% or more of their pilots. The Japanese lost 4 carriers, 1 heavy cruiser, 248 aircraft and 3,057 killed. It was a major victory for the U.S., but most Japanese would never learn the full details until after the war was over. The survivors of the sunken carriers and those aboard the ships that survived would be quarantined or sent on duty assignments far away from home. None of the senior officers would face any serious repercussions. Only those at the very top were informed as to what really happened. Only the Emperor and the top naval officers knew the full details. The public was told it was a great victory, and the Imperial Japanese Army believed the navy was in good condition. However, Admiral Yamamoto and the other senior leaders of the Japanese Navy knew the truth. The United States would soon come out stronger than it had been before the attack on Pearl Harbor.
For the United States it would prove the value of intelligence gathering and codebreaking. It would continue to be an important part of the war effort and would yield even more useful information down the road with dire consequences for Admiral Yamamoto. The code breaking led directly to his plane being shot down in 1943 as payback for Pearl Harbor.
(Please note this is a very condensed description of the Battle of Midway and had a lot more stages in it than reflected in this writing).
The Federal File. “Destination Point Luck Voices From Midway – Battle of Midway WWII Documentary.” Video. YouTube, April 24, 2017. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vqpk4Rmfbm8.
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“Midway Is East.” Archive.org, 1952, archive.org/details/VAS_04_Midway_Is_East. This is episode 4 from the excellent Victory at Sea series which was shown in 1952-1953. Using archived footage along with excellent music, the series conveyed the scope of naval warfare in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Watch the entire series if you can.
“The Battle of Midway (Short 1942) ? 6.1 | Documentary, Short, War.” IMDb, 14 Sept. 1942, www.imdb.com/title/tt0034498. This is a documentary made in 1942 right after the battle with John Ford directing. It uses actual footage and uses actors to voice over parts of accounts of the sailors and aviators that participated. It is available (f0r free) from some streaming services like Tubi. You can also view it on YouTube (the version linked here is the colorized version, not the original Black & White).
The Federal File. “Destination Point Luck Voices From Midway – Battle of Midway WWII Documentary.” YouTube, 24 Apr. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vqpk4Rmfbm8.
Midway. Directed by Jack Smight, The Mirisch Corporation, Universal Pictures, 1976. This 1976 movie starring Charlton Heston uses old stock footage and pushes the real historical figures in the background while pushing a fictional story line. While entertaining, many will find it lacking in a lot of real historical depth. The subplot involving Heston’s son in the movie makes it more of a soap opera at times. Worth watching to see some great actors but not so much if you are looking for something that will relate the real story of the battle.
Midway. Directed by Roland Emmerich, Summit Entertainment and others, 2019. This 2019 version significantly was better in terms of better effects and depicting events leading up and the Battle of Midway itself. Most of the characters are based on historical ones. Reviews were mixed on this one. Some thought it was a decent movie, but the story itself was not compelling. Rotten Tomatoes has it as 42% like it and IMDB users rate it as 6.7. It is certainly more historically accurate and shows the Japanese side (with actual Japanese actors speaking Japanese).
