East and West Shaking hands at the laying of last rail Union Pacific Railroad 10 May 1869 Andrew J. Russell (1829–1902), Restored by Adam Cuerden Yale University Libraries (via Wikimedia Commons)
There was a time that traveling coast to coast was an arduous task. You could take a long ship voyage down to the tip of South America (Cape Horn) and then sail north to get to San Francisco. You could get off at the Isthmus of Panama and walk over to the Pacific (and later by train) but it had its own risks as well. Or you could go as far west as the train would take you and take either a long wagon train voyage (or possibly a long stagecoach ride) until you got to the west coast. The completion of the transcontinental railway ended that on 10 May 1865 in Promontory, Utah.
The need for a transcontinental railroad was noticed as early as 1832. Connecting both coasts was needed in order to move freight, people, and even the military if needed. It was not until 1853 that the US Congress approved money for surveys to be done on possible routes. Tensions between North and South caused delays and where the line should begin. In 1862, with the Civil War going on, Congress approved the Pacific Railroad Act (1862) which gave loans and public land grants to build the railroad. The Union Pacific and Central Pacific rail lines began construction in Omaha and Sacramento.
Construction was arduous and difficult for both lines and the workers who built them. The Union Pacific used mostly Irish laborers, many who had served in the Civil War. Conditions in towns and settlements they had to use in most cases was simple and often miserable. Making it more difficult were the hot summers and often cold winters along with a great deal of lawlessness as well. The Central Pacific used Chinese laborers who worked brutal 12-hour days and were paid less than their counterparts on the Union Pacific. Building in the Sierra Nevada mountains proved very difficult, and avalanches were a frequent hazard in which whole work crews would be killed. Also misuse or mishandling of explosives would also take lives as well.
Yet despite all of this (and even initially building the lines that did not connect), the transcontinental railroad got done ahead of schedule in 1869. Remarkably it came in under budget, which is extraordinary for a massive project of this type. Its construction allowed for the rapid expansion and development of the United States thanks to the rapid movement of freight and people across the country. By the end of June 1869, it was possible to travel entirely by rail from Jersey City, New Jersey to the Alameda Wharf in Oakland, CA. From there you hopped on a railway owned ferry to take you across the bay to San Francisco.
Advertisements carried in The Salt Lake Daily Telegraph showing both Central Pacific and Union Pacific Railroads ability to know travel between both the East and West coasts of the United States. Appeared the week that the two rail lines were joined in Utah on 10 May 1869. Source: The Cooper Collection of US Railroad History Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Sources
Allen et al., “Railroad | History, Invention, & Facts,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified April 21, 2025, http://www.britannica.com/technology/railroad/The-transcontinental-railroad.
HISTORY.com Editors, “Transcontinental Railroad Completed, Unifying United States | May 10, 1869 | HISTORY,” HISTORY, last modified March 5, 2025, http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/transcontinental-railroad-completed.
History Net Staff, “The Transcontinental Railroad: Facts and Information,” HistoryNet, April 24, 2023, http://www.historynet.com/transcontinental-railroad.
Lindbergh Child Poster 1932 Public Domain (via Wikimedia Commons)
The kidnapping of the Lindbergh baby would shock the nation and bring heartbreak to the Lindbergh family. Famed aviator Charles Lindbergh and his wife Anne lived in a house in Hopewell, New Jersey. Around 9:00 pm on 1 March 1932, the kidnapper or kidnappers climbed a ladder into the second-story nursery and abducted the child. A ransom note of $50,000 was left behind. The child was found missing an hour by the nanny, Betty Gow. The local police were notified and turned the case over to the New Jersey State Police. The search found the ransom note, muddy footprints in the nursery, and a ladder a distance away from the home. Footprints from the ladder led into the woods at the edge of the property.
Two other ransom notes would be received raising the demand to $70,000. Attempts to contact the kidnappers failed. Ultimately a retired New York City teacher named John Condon placed advertising in a Bronx newspaper offering to act as intermediary. He got a note from the kidnappers that he would be acceptable. Condon used newspaper columns under the name of Jafsie to send messages. The kidnappers responded with leaving secret written messages at locations in New York City. Additionally, the kidnappers sent the child’s sleeping suit as proof of identity. On 2 April 1932, a meet was set up to deliver the ransom with Lindbergh nearby. Condon talked with someone called John. He accepted $50,000 (the original amount) and said they would find the baby on a boat named Nelly Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts. A search for the boat turned up nothing. The money paid were gold certificates whose serial numbers were recorded by the Treasury Department.
Sadly, on 12 May 1932 the body of child was found less than 5 miles from the Lindbergh home. The child was positively identified as the missing child Charles Lindbergh, Jr. An autopsy determined the baby had been killed by a blow to the head either during or just after the kidnapping. The Lindbergh’s were deeply saddened and decided to leave the area, and the house was given to a charity. Investigators checked everyone connected to Lindbergh and John Condon. Nothing was found. Outrage over the kidnapping convinced President Roosevelt to order the U.S. Bureau of Investigation (renamed later to Federal Bureau of Investigation) to investigate. Congress passed the Federal Kidnapping Act (known as the Lindbergh Law) on 12 June 1932. The law makes kidnapping a crime across state lines and that the person(s) convicted of it would face the death penalty.
Aftermath
A year later a service station attendant in New York City recorded the license plate of a man who had paid with a $10 gold certificate. The gold certificate was registered as one that was used to pay the kidnappers a year before. It was traced to a Bronx residence who matched the description of John who Condon had met with. On 10 Sept 1934, Bruno Hauptmann was arrested and a $20 gold certificate from the ransom payment was found on him. More gold certificates would be found, and his penmanship was similar to what the kidnapper(s) used. Hauptmann claimed he was holding the money for Isidore Fisch, who had returned to Germany and had died. Hauptmann was indicted for murder on 8 Oct 1934. He went on trial in January 1935. This “trial of the century” was mostly circumstantial rather than direct evidence. Condon’s telephone number though was found on a closet door frame and Lindbergh recognized his voice as the one heard the night of the ransom payment. Hauptmann took the stand in his defense claiming he was innocent. He claimed he was beaten by the police and forced to give handwriting samples. He was found guilty on 13 February 1935. His legal appeals, including to the U.S. Supreme Court were rejected. He was executed on 3 April 1936.
There have been many books over the years that dispute the fingerprints, the police methods and the investigation claiming he was at best innocent or worse framed for the crime. Some have argued that Lindbergh himself was responsible though the outcome of the dead infant was unplanned. Others have sifted through all the evidence and found the evidence compelling enough to warrant the conviction. The strongest support of that is he fit the description that Condon gave, and Lindbergh recognized his voice.
Spoiler Alert Warning!
A more fantastic idea comes the alternative history novel The Plot Against America by Phillip Roth. In this book, Lindbergh becomes president in 1940 instead of Franklin Roosevelt. As president, he signs peace accords with both Nazi Germany and Japan keeping the U.S. out of the war during his time in office. He also enacts policies against the Jews and other things that start moving America more towards a fascist state. After his presidency ends (he flies off and disappears never to be seen again), it is revealed that the Germans had organized the kidnapping and brought his child to Germany. They used this as leverage to compel Lindbergh to enact policies in line with the Nazi’s. At the same time, it was spread that Jew’s were responsible for the kidnapping encouraging antisemitism in America.
However, Lindbergh was not as keen in doing what they wanted (about the Jews in particular) and resisted. His vice president though was in tune with implementing the more radical policies they favored. It is not clear what really happened to Lindbergh. Was his plane brought down by engine failure, did he deliberately crash his plane, or did the Nazi’s have something to do with it? His disappearance allowed the vice president to take control and operate more like an authoritarian leader the Nazi’s would approve of lending credence to this theory. It fell apart thanks to Lindbergh’s wife taking to the radio and asking for it to stop. It does and ultimately Roosevelt would be president in the next election ending the Nazi plot.
RMS Lusitania Coming Into Port (circa 1907-1913) George Grantham Bain Collection, US Library of Congress, Digital Id cph.3g13287. Public Domain
On 7 May 1915, the Cunard liner RMS Lusitania sailing from New York to Liverpool was torpedoed off Ireland and sank within 18 minutes. Of the 1,959 passengers and crew aboard, only 761 would survive. 128 of the passengers were American.
World War II had begun in 1914 between Britain, France, and Russia (including Belgium, Italy, Portugal, and Serbia) and Germany, Austria Hungary, and Turkey (then called Ottoman Empire). The United States, under President Woodrow Wilson, declared neutrality. Since the U.S. was a major trading partner with Britain, problems arose when Germany tried to quarantine the British Isles using mines. Several American ships ended up being damaged or sunk as a result. In February 1915, Germany declared unrestricted submarine warfare around British waters. This meant any ship entering these waters were subject to being attacked and sunk by German forces.
To make this very clear, the German embassy in Washington had advertisements run in New York newspapers in early May 1915 that Americans traveling on British or Allied ships in war zones did so at their own risk. In one case, the announcement was on the same page as advertisement of the Lusitania sailing from New York to Liverpool.
Warning issued by Imperial German Embassy in Washington about travelling on RMS Lusitania. Author Unknown Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons
The British Admiralty issued warnings, due to merchant ships being sunk off the south coast of Ireland, to ships to avoid the area or take evasive action (zigzagging was advised). The British objected by pointing out that threatening to torpedo all ships was wrong, whether announced in advance or not. During her construction, subsidized by the British government, it was done with the proviso she could be converted to an armed merchant cruiser.
A compartment was also installed to for the purposes of carrying arms and ammunition if it were needed. Gun mounts were installed for deck cannons, but they were not installed. At the time of her sinking, she was not operating in any official capacity as an armed merchant cruiser. The Germans suspected the ship was being used to transport munitions and her repainting to a grey color was an attempt to disguise her (it was, but to make it harder to spot from a periscope).
The Lusitania was one of the fastest liners on the Atlantic capable of 25 knots (29 mph) with many refinements. With lifts, the wireless telegraph, electric lights, and more passenger space (and more sumptuous accomodations), traveling on the Lusitania or her sister ships Aquitania and Maurentania was considered a good experience by seasoned travelers. The fact that she traveled so fast makes it likely it was simply being in the right place and the right time for the German U-boat. She could not possibly have caught the speedy vessel otherwise (there are arguments about what speed Lusitania was doing at this time off Ireland).
Engraving of Lusitania Sinking by Norman Wilkinson, The Illustrated London News, May 15, 1915 Public Domain(Wikimedia)
Captain William Turner did not use zigzagging while in the area (many argue that it does not really work). The commanding officer of the U-boat, Walther Schwieger, ordered one torpedo fired around 14:10 (2:10 pm). It struck the Lusitania on the starboard bow. A second explosion within the ship occurred and the ship began to founder starboard quickly. While the crew tried to launch the lifeboats, the severe list made it difficult and impossible in many cases. Only six of the forty-eight lifeboats would be launched. The ship sank in 18 minutes taking with her 1, 198 souls. Of the 764 that did survive (and that is a heroic tale of itself), three would die later from wounds sustained from the sinking. Though close to the coast, it would be some time before assistance arrived. Local fishing ships were the first to provide assistance, and later the naval patrol boat Heron. Other small ships provided assistance as well.
Aftermath
The sinking provoked international fury at Germany. Germany defended its actions saying the ship had been carrying contraband and was an armed auxiliary military cruiser. The reaction within Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey was criticism of the sinking. The German government tried to defend the sinking, even though she was not armed, by saying she was carrying contraband and they had warned this would happen. The official statements did not go over well in the United States or in Britain. Editorials in newspapers denounced what Germany had done calling for more to bring them to heel. It was hotly debated within the Wilson administration what to do. Wilson condemned what Germany had done but internally but William Jennings Bryan, the Secretary of State, argued for trying to convince both Britain and Germany to ratchet down some of the actions that had led to Lusitania sinking. Bryan was antiwar and like many did not want the U.S. getting involved in the European war.
President Wilson would send three notes to Germany that made his position clear on the issue. First he said that Americans had the right to travel on merchant ships and for Germany to abandon submarine warfare on such vessels. Second, he rejected German arguments about Lusitania. This note caused Bryan to resign and was replaced by Robert Lansing. The third note was a warning that any subsequent sinkings would be “deliberately unfriendly.” That last one made it clear America’s position on the matter. While many wanted to stay out of the war, if the Germans did do it again they likely would find themselves at war with them.
The British government and press were not happy with Wilson over these notes. He was widely castigated and sneered. The reality was that American public opinion was not in favor of war. Wilson knew this and hoped Germany would stop attacking merchant vessels. There was some attempt within the German government to forbid action against neutral ships, which did curtail unrestricted submarine warfare for a while. British merchant ships were targeted, neutral ships treated differently (boarded and searched for war materials), and passenger ships left alone. But in 1917, Germany announced it would resume unrestricted submarine warfare. Wilson was furious and began preparations for war with Germany.
The Lusitania Resource. “The Lusitania Resource: Passengers & Crew, Facts & History.” The Lusitania Resource. Last modified May 3, 2025. https://www.rmslusitania.info/.
Airship Hindenburg crash in Lakehurst, New Jersey on May 6, 1937 Photo originally taken by Murray Becker, AP Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
On 6 May 1937, the German airship Hindenburg caught fire and was destroyed while docking at Naval Air Station Lakehurst, New Jersey. Of the 97 passengers and crew, 35 died, and one ground worker was killed.
The Hindenburg was called the Silver Giant being 804 feet long and just 80 feet shorter than Titanic. At the time, she was the largest aircraft ever built. For people standing there to see the arrival of this airship, it was a marvel of aviation. Ballon technology had been around since the 18th century, but it was Ferdinand, Graf von Zeppelin who launched the first airship. The first models were only a modest success, but they were used by the Germans in World War I. These airships were used for aerial bombings of both London and Paris. They arrived with little notice sending people into panic though their actual bombing didn’t result in a lot of damage. However shooting them down proved difficult; it took two years for the British to come up with the right ammunition to bring a Zeppelin down.
After the war German engineers turned to making long range passenger airships that would cross the Atlantic. The first transatlantic was in 1919 and a decade later it looked like the dawn of airship travel had begun. The Graf Zeppelin was launched in 1928. The massive airship could carry passengers in accommodations that rivaled those on ocean liners. Commercial airship service between Germany and South America soon began. The Hindenburg, launched in 1936, made roundtrips to the United States and Brazil. It had 25 passenger cabins for two people each, a bar, restaurant, and smoking lounge (pressurized to keep hydrogen gas from getting in). Although originally designed for helium (which was banned by the US for export to Germany), it used hydrogen for its lift and buoyancy. It had 4 Daimler Benz 16-cylinder engines that gave it a maximum speed 80 mph (131 km). A crew of 40 were aboard the airship as well.
The German airships were undeniably spectacular in design and use It took half the time if you went by an ocean liner and its elegance was remarkable with luxurious interiors that to this day has yet to be matched by modern jetliners. Imagine enjoying meals flying above the ocean in an elegant dining room, sleeping in comfortable cabins, and having the ability to gaze out at the sea able to sometimes see dolphins, whales, and of course ships. The future looked good for airships but airplanes such as the Pan Am Clipper were also competition as well.
On 6 May 1937 the Hindenburg was scheduled to dock at the Lakehurst Naval Air Station in New Jersey. It flew over Manhattan giving the passengers a spectacular view of the city. On the way to Lakehurst, it was learned that winds of up to 25 knots were expected. Since the airship was lighter-than-air, winds make landings tricky. They headed southward for a while to let the winds diminish. After 6 pm, the airship was notified the storm had passed and was safe for them to approach and dock. The Hindenburg had traveled quite a distance away and turned back. Docking was not to occur until around 7 pm. Hindenburg finally arrived around 7:10 pm and began lining itself up for the mooring mast. It had to drop ballast water and some onlookers who were close got splattered. By 7:21 pm, passengers could be seen looking out the windows at the onlookers. Everything looked good. The flight officers in the cabin saw nothing out the ordinary. Crew were in the tail ready to drop the mooring line and the rear landing wheel.
At 7:25 pm witnesses saw a mushroom sized flame rise from the top of the tail section in front of the tail fin. The crewmen in the tail hear a detonation that was later described as like a burner on a gas stove turned on. The fire spread very quickly in seconds with the md-section engulfed in flames before the tail hit the ground. In 34 seconds, the airship had been totally consumed by flames. Passengers and crew had little time to react. Some jumped but the Hindenburg was still high up and many did not survive the fall. Others were trapped by furniture and passengers who had died. Some managed to walk out when the ship hit the ground or rescued from the burning remains. Survivors were taken to an infirmary while the bodies were removed to a makeshift morgue that normally served as the press room.
It was one for the first well-documented disasters in modern history. All the publicity about the landing of the transatlantic Zeppelin had attracted numerous journalists to watch its arrival. News crews had already been set up to photograph and record the landing. They recorded a disaster instead. While photographs of the event along with news reports will be immediately sent out, it would be the radio report done by WLS (Chicago) reporter Herb Morrison played the next day the most would remember.. Since live audio broadcasts were rare, he recorded what he saw about the landing. And listening to it was riveting. It was recorded at a higher speed than normal, so it was not his normal voice people were hearing. But the commentary as to what he witnessed would go down in journalist history. Later the newsreel footage and his commentary were added, but that was long after the disaster and his reporting was done solely by radio. His full broadcast included interviews with survivors and other witnesses. The full broadcast can be listened here.
An extensive investigation was undertaken to determine what had caused the explosion. Neither the American nor German inquiries found evidence of sabotage. The American report concluded:
The cause of the accident was the ignition of a mixture of free hydrogen and air. Based upon the evidence, a leak at or in the vicinity of cell 4 and 5 caused a combustible mixture of hydrogen and air to form in the upper stern part of the ship in considerable quantity; the first appearance of an open flame was on the top of the ship and a relatively short distance forward of the upper vertical fin. The theory that a brush discharge ignited such mixture appears most probable.
Many theories, in addition to sabotage, have been advanced over the years. They include Lightning, Static Spark, Engine Failure, Incendiary Paint, Hydrogen Leak, and Fuel Leak. MythBusters studied the Incendiary Paint hypothesis and concluded it was not probable. Today many who look at the evidence tend to believe the original conclusion as the most likely and that perhaps a small tear had occurred that allowed hydrogen to leak out.
Aftermath
Zeppelins would continue to fly but their glamour had begun to fade as airplanes started becoming a more acceptable way to fly. The Pan Am Clipper service which began in 1935 had become very successful. Interestingly it had been originally designed for crossing the Atlantic, but the British had banned Pan Am as they wanted to develop their own long range airplane service. Pan Am showed it could fly long range planes with passengers kept in comfort. The disaster and for other reasons (including World War II) ended the era of airships forever.
Battle of Puebla 5 May1862 1870 Located at Museo Nacional de las Intervenciones, Mexico Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
On 5 May 1862 Mexican troops defeated the French at the Battle of Puebla. The victory, while not a major one for the French Mexican War of 1861-1867, was an important morale booster for Mexico.
Background
In 1861 Benito Juarez became president of Mexico. Mexico at time was facing a several financial crises. Mexico had taken out loans from British, French, and Spanish creditors. Due to the inability to pay the mounting debt, Juarez declared a 2-year moratorium on interest loan payments. This brought condemnation from Britain, France, and Spain due to this unilateral action. Both Britain and Spain would initially support French intervention in Mexico. Due to the American Civil War, the United States was unable to do anything.
A Spanish fleet sailed into the port of Veracruz on 14 December 1861 and took possession of it and later the city. French and British forces arrived on 7 January 1862. Spanish General Juan Prim issued a manifesto on 10 January to make it clear they had no come to conquer but to have negotiations with the Mexican government over their claims of damages. These claims were presented on 14 January 1862 to the government I Mexico City. After some back and forth over having the foreign forces leave Vera Cruz, it was decided to hold a conference in Orizaba. The agreement that was signed on 23 January formally recognized the Juarez government and Mexican sovereignty.
Talks broke down on 9 April 1862 as it became clear the French were interested in invading Mexico rather than resolving the debt issue. The British decided to not support the French and told Mexico of its intent to leave. This lead for an agreement between Mexico and the United Kingdom (and Spain as well) over the debt issue. The British and Spanish would leave. The Mexican government made it clear that if the French continued, it would lead to war. French Emperor Napoleon III (a nephew of the famous Napoleon) saw this as an opportunity to carve out an empire in Mexico.
As had happened in Spain during the Napoleonic Wars, there were many Mexicans who sided with France. Napoleon III, like Napoleon, was seen as bringing much needed changes to their country. The French issued a proclamation on 16 April 1862 inviting Mexicans to join them in establishing a new government. Mexican general Juan Almonte, who had served as foreign minister under the conservative government, was brought back by French and assured the Mexican people of the benevolent French intentions. The French thought the war would be brief and defeated small Mexico forces at Escamela and then capturing Orizaba. With 6,000 troops, French General de Lorencez reasonably believed he would easily defeat Mexican forces. Juarez had been forced into exile in late 1861when French troops had landed. Now operating out of the north, he assembled faithful soldiers and sent them to Puebla. General Almonte used the time to consolidate the Mexican pro French supporters and got some major cities to join him like Orizaba and Veracruz. Former officers of the Mexican Army, now aligned with France, joined as well.
Juarez had ordered the fortification of Puebla forcing the French forces trying and failing to capture the forts Loreto and Guadalupe situated on top of the hills overlooking the city of Puebla. Lorencez went up against a smaller force of Mexicans that comprised between 2,000-5,000 that managed to stave off the larger and more powerful French army. The French were better armed with long rifles that were better than the muskets the Mexicans had. Many French soldiers, thinking it was going to be nothing more than a quick fight, did not bother to get their weapons ready to go. The French started the morning with loud bugle cries and bayonet drills to intimidate the city. After a full day of warfare, which included three failed uphill attacks on the forts, Lorencez was forced to retreat to Orizaba. The victory was a huge morale booster for the smaller Mexican forces and Mexico in general. The battle was just one of many during the war, that would rage till 1867. But the day is celebrated in Mexico because a mouse had defeated a roaring lion called France.
Aftermath
French forces retreated and regrouped after the battle. When word of the defeat reached Napoleon III, he dismissed Lorencez and ordered more troops to Mexico. The French would win the second Battle of Puebla in 1863 and then capturing Mexico City forcing Juarez into retreat into more remote northern parts of Mexico. The Second Empire of Mexico would be proclaimed. Napoleon tapped the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand Maximillian to be Emperor of Mexico. Supporters of the Mexican Republic would continue to wage war as guerilla bands much like those that had formed in Spain to fight the French who had invaded and conquered the country. The Empire of Mexico was recognized by the European powers but crucially not by the United States. Since it was embroiled in its war with the Confederates States of America, it did not formally oppose it.
Once the war was over though, U.S. policy changed significantly by recognizing the government of Benito Juarez as legitimate over that of the Empire of Mexico. Napoleon III had thought America would come out weak in the end, but instead the North won the war, and the union was restored. This left Napoleon III with a significant problem. While the U.S. was not aiding Juarez directly (though it was indirectly), it was made very clear that the Empire of Mexico was not welcome, and that France should get out. Not wanting to face war with the United States, he began withdrawing troops in 1866. Maximillian had limited support and while liberal on many causes, he did not have the widespread support he needed to stay in power. As French troops began to depart, he declined to abdicate and leave with the French. He was captured with two of his generals by Republican forces and executed by firing squad on 19 June 1867. The short-lived Empire of Mexico was at an end.
Sources
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Battle of Puebla | Mexican Victory, Cinco De Mayo, Zaragoza,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified April 28, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Puebla.
On May 4, 1905, the United States began constructing the Panama Canal. Completed in 1914, it enabled easy ship and cargo transport between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, avoiding the treacherous Cape Horn route.
View from a unidentified sailing ship during a storm at Cape Horn Circa 1854-1954 (no exact date exists) Source: National Library of Australia Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
For hundreds of years sailors who made the long trek from Europe to the Pacific Ocean had a dream. A dream of one day being able to sail straight across rather than all the way down to the tip of South America where the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans meet. Cape Horn, so named by a Dutch captain in 1615, was a major point shipping point where trade ships plied between Europe and Asia. If you wanted to get to China, Japan, or shipping ports on the Pacific western coast (South America up to Alaska), this was the preferred route for many merchant and military vessels. However, the convergence of both oceans at that area also led to it being a treacherous path at times due to fierce storms that really put the skills of a mariner to a test. Many a ship has sunk in those waters and many explorers saw their fleets thinned out in that area.
The building of the transatlantic railway helped reduce the need to ship freight and passengers somewhat but not enough. A land route through the Isthmus of Panama was possible though it had its own perils as well. You had to walk from the one coast to the other through a jungle. The Spanish established Panama on the Pacific and the Nombre de Dios on the Atlantic connected by 49 mile (80 km) simple jungle path. The path was simple and not built for moving cargo but moving people (mostly soldiers) from one coast to the other. People who choose this route over taking a ship faced a hot climate, insects that carried malaria, and other surprises that were not for the faint of heart. A railroad was constructed (at heavy cost) to move people and freight but that still left ships making the dangerous route. Hence the dream of a canal was born. Building it was another matter.
The French Try and Fail
Ferdinand de Lesseps (1805-1894) photographed by Nadar Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
After building the Suez Canal in 1869, the French government thought it could do the same in connecting the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans. Sitting in their comfortable rooms back in France, they perceived no difficulty. Hence the first problem-not fully sending an expedition to completely survey and determine exactly how such a canal would need to be built. In 1876, La Société internationale du Canal interocéanique was created to create the Panama Canal. It obtained an exclusive concession from the Colombian government to build the canal in Panama. The concession was to last for 15 years and then the canal would revert to Columbia. Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had headed up the Suez Canal project, was put in charge. Having his name attached made it easier to attract investors to the company. Lesseps though, was not an engineer and did not fully comprehend how much different it would be to build this canal. A canal through the desert was easy to what they found in Panama.
To make a canal feasible, you had to have a way to accommodate the fact that its lowest level, it would still be 360 feat above sea level at the lowest crossing point. Lesseps initially proposed a sea level canal but it would require enormous excavation of rock. And the rock was not very stable either. And then there was the problem of the rivers that would cross the canal creating in certain times of the year creating currents that would danger shipping. So the Chagres would have to be diverted to avoid this problem, which added more complexity to an already complex building project. Then there was the problem of tropical diseases of which both malaria and yellow fever were the worst. It was not understood how they were transmitted, but mosquitoes were prevalent and not understand as the transmitter of such diseases.
An international body headed up by Lesseps started in 1879 in Paris. The Congress for Study of an Interoceanic Canal brought together 136 delegates from 26 countries but only 42 were engineers. Others were a variety of people interested in the project and so it was mostly a fundraising event and to make legitimate the Lessep idea was (drawn from plans made by Lucien Bonaparte-Wyse and Armand Réclus) of a sea level canal that would be as easy to complete as the Suez Canal. Ultimately only 19 engineers would approve the plan but except for one, had never been to Central America. It was originally projected to cost $214 million, then revised down to $168 million. For reasons never explained, Lesseps reduced the estimate twice down to $120 million and that it would take six years to build.
Oops, we need to start over!
Construction began on 1 January 1881 with digging at Culebra on 22 January. A huge labor force was needed and a lot of them came from African-Caribbean workers from the West Indies. There was no shortage of experienced engineers needed but, as in the case of the workers, disease made it hard to retain them. And once word got out that the fever canal was not a good place to work in, it became harder to find engineers willing to put their health at risk. The death toll from 1881-1889 is estimated to be over 22.000 but is likely higher.
Then in 1885 another shock hit. The sea level canal was not possible to build owing to the fact that there was no way to remedy the elevation difference between where the lowest point is still 360 feet above sea level. It became obvious that only a lock canal plan would work. Lesseps was not convinced but ultimately engineering studies proved it was the only practical way to achieve this. It was finally adopted in 1887 but the scandal caused by the engineering problems, financial problems, the mortality rates rising, and worse frequent floods and mudslides indicated this project was in peril. While work on the new plan continued, it would end on 15 May 1889 when the company went bankrupt. The canal was about two-fifths done and over $234 million had been spent.
And it got worse back in France where investigations into how this ended so bad. An official commission was ordered by the French parliament. Worse were some were blaming Jews who speculated on the project. Despite all of this, the French government decided to keep it going, if nothing else to recoup expenses and show the world it could complete the canal. A new company was formed to finish the canal (Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama). A new concession was obtained from Colombia and work started up again this time with the plan of a two level, lock based canal. However, they ran into a wholly different problem than before as the United States was getting involved and was going to build a canal through Nicaragua instead. This made the French canal through Panama useless, and the company started looking for a buyer with deep pockets. And they found one. The United States bought it up and a whole new ballgame had begun.
The U.S. Builds the Canal
The French had negotiated a concession with the Columbian government, but the U.S. found it difficult. The U.S. bought the French company and land. A treaty was signed in 1903 (Hay-Herran Treaty) that gave the U.S. the rights to build in Panama. Unfortunately, the Colombia senate did not ratify the treaty. This left the U.S. with a company and land in Panama but no rights to build the canal. Now the area in Panama was inhabited by native people who had tried in the past to gain independence from Columbia but not able to pull it off. An early attempt to recognize Panama independence in 1903 was rejected by Columbia. U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt made it known that if the natives did seek independence, the U.S. would support it.
Photograph of the USS Nashville (PG-7) at the Norfolk Navy Yard, Virginia, 8 January 1898 Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
On 3 November 1903, a revolt took place with the natives proclaiming their independence from Colombia. The USS Nashville had been stationed there to prevent any Colombian interference. The result was the new Panama government gave the U.S. complete control of the Panama Canal Zone and through a signed treaty gave the new country 10 million, the right of the US to administer and defend the canal and split the fees for canal use.
It was on 4 May 1905, formally called Acquisition Day, the project became official, and construction would commence. It was completed in 1914. The 52-mile canal now connected the Atlantic and Pacific oceans without having to sail down to Cape Horn and into the Pacific. Commercial traffic would increase as more cargo and passenger ships could easily move between the two oceans. The 10-mile Panama Canal Zone would grow and become more important as a result. Today only the supersized ships must make the trip down to Cape Horn as they are too big for the Panama Canal.
Panama Canal (1923) Original Source: Historical Atlas” by William R. Shepherd, New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1923 Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Today the Panama Canal is recognized as one of the seven wonders of the modern world. In the 1960’s and 1970’s, many Panamanians wanted to revisit the original treaty and gain more control of the canal. In a 1977 treaty signed by President Jimmy Carter and Panama leader Omar Torrijos, it was agreed that the Panama Canal Authority would be turned over to Panama in 1999.
Update 2025:
The United States under President Trump has publicly said it wanted more control over the Panama Canal. Panama had contracted with a company based in China to oversee administration and operation of the the canal. Due to ongoing disputes with China involving trade and its expansion of military power (and threats to several countries in the region), they wanted this relationship to end. Panama has agreed and is currently seeking bids from non-Chinese companies to run the canal.
Sources
Panama Canal: History, Definition & Canal Zone – HISTORY. “Panama Canal: History, Definition and Canal Zone – HISTORY.” HISTORY, 6 Sept. 2022, last modified May 6, 2025. www.history.com/topics/landmarks/panama-canal.
Padelford, Norman J, Bray, Wayne D, Worthington, William E, Cho, Aileen, Gordon, and Burton L. “Panama Canal | Definition, History, Ownership, Treaty, Map, Locks, & Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified May 5, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Panama-Canal.
May, from the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry (1412-1416) Limbourg brothers (fl. 1402–1416) Public Domain (Wikimedia Commons)
May, the fifth month in the Gregorian and Julian calendars, is named after the Greek goddess Maia. It was the third month in the Roman calendar and has 31 days. The full moon in May, often called the Flower Moon, coincides with blooming flowers.
Bouquet of beautiful red roses Davidjose365, May 2015 Wikimedia Commons
May is associated with spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere. As a bridge between spring and summer, it has varying hot and cold days by location. The saying “Warm January, cool May” is sometimes true. In the past, homes were sealed for winter, but in May, windows were opened to let in warm spring air. Spring cleaning remains a tradition to freshen homes after winter. In *The Beverly Hillbillies*, Granny cleaned the mansion thoroughly, placing items outside.
A sure sign spring is here is when lambs appear. Spring Lamb In The Sunshine Photo: Tanya Hall/publicdomainpictures.net
Spring is when plants start growing, and many festivals celebrate this season. Ancient Romans held several in May, and many Europeans still do. Late May often marks the start of summer. May’s symbols are the emerald (birthstone), lily of the valley, and hawthorn (birth flowers).
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